The Carboniferous Culm deposits of the northern Gondwana continental margin constitute a significant knowledge gap in our understanding of the Paleotethyan tectonic evolution. This study presents novel detrital data of sandstone rocks from the Kabylian Culm in Algeria, providing critical insights. The available coarse sandstones (25 samples) in five representative sections of the Kabylide Domain (Chenoua Massif, Great Kabylia, and Little Kabylia) were sampled. The quartzolithic metamorphiclastic composition indicates the influence of a high-to-low metamorphic grade source. Most of the detritus is moderately sorted, consisting of plutonic-gneissic rock fragments and, suggesting low-to-medium-grade metamorphic lithics. Coeval volcanic activity (andestitic to rhyolitic) is also testified. A significant ophiolite-derived content suggests the existence of a lost oceanic branch. Some samples were determined to be metasediments exhibiting greenschist-facies (<450 C-degrees), linked to the later Paleotethyan tectonic phase. We have found similarities and a few differences in metamorphism, magmatism and ophiolitic suites, when compared with neighboring paleogeographic sectors in the Rif-Betic Chain, belonging to the Paleo-Mesomediterranean Terrane (northern Gondwana). The presence of impure chert detritus probably represents the erosion of a lowermost Carboniferous cherty marker bed, which is absent in Kabylia but present in the Rif-Betic Chain. The Culm cycle in the southern margin of the Paleo-Mesomediterrean Terrane represents the foredeep depozone of the foreland basin of the Culm Cycle. This terrane, together with the Iberian-French massifs, should act as the hinterland. The detrital signatures seem to indicate a lost oceanic closure, subduction, magmatic arc, tectonic stacking, and continental collision, all of which occurred in the northern Gondwana during the Visean Variscan s.s. paleotectonic phase. Southward, the basin transitioned into an oceanic branch of the western Paleotethys. In this context, the Paleo-Saharian-Atlas band constituted the distal passive margin before being deformed by the subsequent Paleotethyan phase that deformed the basin.

This study identifies thirteen sedimentary facies (F1 to F13) across five stratigraphic sections, representing shallow marine carbonate platform environments. These are characterized by lithology, sedimentary structures, and macrofossil content including oysters, gastropods, echinoids, algae, fish remains, and bryozoans. A total absence of larger benthic foraminifera (LBF) and zooxanthellate corals (z-corals) has been noticed. Biostratigraphic analysis dated the basement as Maastrichtian (non terminal) and the Paleogene succession as Lutetian. Eight carbonate platform microfacies (Mf1 to Mf8) were defined, covering both inner ramp (tidal flat, lagoon, shoal, and oyster-rich reef bioherm) and mid ramp (reef slope and open marine) environments. The Eocene fossil assemblage indicates the presence of heterotrophic communities thriving in meso- to eutrophic waters, indicative of a tropical, heterozoan carbonate factory dominated by bryozoans and mollusks. Subsidence patterns varied significantly: Logs 4 and 5 (Folded Middle Atlas Block) recorded higher subsidence rates, while Logs 1 to 3 (Tabular Middle Atlas Block) show lower rates. Succession is organized into low-frequency (3rd-order) predominantly transgressive sequences, typically punctuated by rapid regressions and transgressions. These depositional rhythms are interpreted as responses to regional tectonic pulses associated with the Eo-Alpine phase. Regional correlations reveal a striking contrast: while coeval Neo-Tethyan platforms, from Spain to Italy, are characterized by homogeneity and abundant LBF and z-corals, the study area and the Algerian Saharan Domain, lack these taxa, instead featuring sediments rich in phosphates, oysters, and fish remains. This distinctive facies association (heterozoan dominated) reflects nutrient-rich upwelling zones similar to those in the Atlantic. It is proposed that further exploration of a potential narrow corridor, which served as hinterland to the Atlas-Mesetas System during the Paleocene-Eocene period and was influenced by tectonic controls from basement folding, could elucidate the origin of these Atlantic-type deposits.

This study investigates the Cenozoic geodynamic, palaeogeographic, and palaeoclimatic evolution of the Moroccan NW African Margin through petrographic analysis of 18 stratigraphic sections across the Maghrebian Flysch Basin and the External Rif Zone. Detrital samples (comprising arenites and microconglomerates) are classified as quartzarenites, sublitharenites, and litharenites. These rocks are dominated by quartz and lithics, with scarce intrabasinal carbonate content. Provenance signatures reveal a polycyclic origin with the presence of low- to medium-grade metamorphic sources, likely derived from pre-Alpine orogens (African Craton, Pan-African belt, and/or Variscan mesetas), with contributions from plutonic intrusions. During the Oligo-Miocene, sections show increased quartz, particularly in distal foreland domains, reflecting tectonic uplift and enhanced recycling. Minor mafic input in the Intrarif/Mesorif suggests episodic oceanic crust or subduction-related volcanic contributions. Palaeoclimate proxies suggest moderate to high chemical weathering, with peak warming and aridity during the Paleocene-Eocene and Middle-Late Miocene intervals. Textural maturity ranges from well-sorted quartzarenites to submature arenites, supported by low content of feldspar and unstable grains content, suggesting a history of prolonged sediment transport, multicyclic recycling, and diagenetic overprinting. Comparative analysis with the South Iberian, North Tunisian, West Adriatic and Moldavidian- Scythian-Moessian Margins show inmature sediments in the internal areas, ultramature sediments close to the foreland and mixed succession of the two formers in intermediate positions. In particular, the South Iberian Margin shares quartz-lithic dominance but lacks metamorphic/plutonic clasts, whereas the West Adriatic Margin is characterized by persistent arc-derived volcanoclastics. These disparities highlight distinct geodynamic and palaeogeographic regimes across the Western Tethys during the Cenozoic. Our findings constrain orogenic recycling, sediment routing, and climatic feedbacks in the NW African Margin, providing insights for Mediterranean Alpine belts geodynamic reconstructions.

Effective conservation of archaeological sites demands systematic knowledge of construction geomaterials and their deterioration patterns. This study develops and validates a transferable methodological protocol for heritage geomaterial inventory and decay assessment, using the Tamuda site (Morocco) as an applied case study. The method integrates: (i) field mapping and quantitative stone-type quantification; (ii) standardized weathering diagnosis following the ICOMOS-ISCS glossary; (iii) correlation of decay mechanisms with petrographic properties; and (iv) provenance linkage to local geological formations. Applied to Tamuda, the protocol reveals a dominant assemblage of sandy limestone (37%), sandstone (25%), travertine (23%), and grey limestone (8%), alongside minor geomaterials (<2%) including basalt, bricks, and calcarenites, locally sourced from Cenozoic and Mesozoic formations around Tetouan. The approach demonstrates that heterogeneous petrography directly governs differential decay: carbonate rocks show high susceptibility to dissolution and biological colonization, whereas detrital stones are prone to granular disintegration, cracking, and scaling. Physical, chemical, and biological weathering act synergistically, amplified by the clay-rich Pliocene terrace and local hygrothermal dynamics. The quantitative assessment of stone deterioration at Tamuda reveals heterogeneous damage, with physical degradation reaching severe levels (between 50% and 75%), while chemical and biological alterations remain low to moderate. Crucially, beyond site-specific diagnosis, the protocol delivers actionable outputs: selection of compatible replacement stones, targeted mitigation strategies for each deterioration type (especially water-driven mechanisms), and a scientific baseline for restoration prioritization. The study further outlines methodological extensions (mineralogical fingerprinting, portable sensor monitoring, and petrographic provenance analysis) positioning this approach as a reference for heritage management across the Mediterranean. By demonstrating how systematic geomaterial inventory becomes an operational decision-making tool, this work shifts heritage conservation from reactive repair to predictive, material-based management, offering a replicable model for archaeological sites in Morocco and beyond.

Thirteen Paleocene-Eocene sections have been studied along the Prebetic Domain (South Iberian Margin) in the Alicante, Murcia, Granada, and Jaen Sectors. The sedimentary realms (mostly consisting in 15 shallow marine Lithofacies) and the tectono-sedimentary evolution were characterized. Three informal stratigraphic formations were proposed and dated with planktic foraminifera, calcareous nannoplankton, and Larger Benthic Foraminifera (LBF): (1) lower marly-clayey fm; (2) intermediate limestone-calcarenite fm; and (3) upper marly-clayey fm. The stratigraphic architecture shows diachronous boundaries and lateral passages, representing the internal and external platform (upper slope in a few cases). The lower marly-clayey fm is upper Paleocene to middle Lutetian, the intermediate limestone-calcarenite fm ranges from lower Ypresian to lower Bartonian, while the upper marly-clayey formation is lower Lutetian to lower Priabonian. The diachronism can be due to the inherent sedimentary paleoenvironment changes and to climatic-tectonic interferences. The noticeable thickness variations of sedimentary successions in the studied sections could indicate a synsedimentary tectonics with upward and downward movements of blocks or folds. During the Paleocene-Eocene, the studied area was part of the meridional belt of platforms in the western Tethys. A comparison with other sectors of the central-western Mediterranean area has been performed to evidence synchronous events at Tethyan scale. The compared margins experienced a common pre-foredeep evolution affected by the Eo-Alpine tectonics (Cretaceous to Paleogene) contemporaneously to the establishment of shallow and deep palaeoecological realms. In the case of shallow sedimentary successions, LBF and corals are registered. Comparable gaps in sedimentation are recorded in most of the correlated domains.

The Koudiat El Madene Unit (Arba Massif) belongs to the Kabylian "Dorsal" (Algerian Internal Zone). The stratigraphy and tectonic structuring of the area is equivalent to the western Moroccan Internal Rif and its counterpart in the Spanish Internal Betic Cordillera. In fact, all these chain segments are due to a common Cenozoic geodynamic evolution related to the closure of the westernmost Tethys and the later opening of the Mediterranean Sea. Nevertheless, a comparison of the Kabylian internal units at the western Mediterranean scale was still missing. This study means a revisiting of the outcrops of the Koudiat El Madene Unit and a revision of the existent literature on the area aimed to a comparation of this area with the Algerian Kabylian "Dorsal" and with the Ghomaride (Moroccan Rif) and Malaguide (Spanish Betic Cordillera) equivalents units. This unit crops out in a tectonic window under different backthrusting units of the Maghrebian Flysch Basin Zone and overthrusts southwards the Maghrebian Flysch Basin Zone itself and the External Tellian Zones. This is a frequent tectonic situation of this kind of units in the internal Rif-Betic chains. The condensed succession of the Koudiat El Madene Unit, separated by unconformities but also by internal erosive boundaries, is divided into five stratigraphic formations. Nowadays, the stratigraphic division and dating of the Koudiat El Madene Unit (Algerian Kabyle Unit) are less detailed than its equivalents in the Ghomarides, especially those of the Malaguides. Nevertheless, a correlation with the Ghomaride Units from the Tetouan-Chaouen area (Northern Morocco) and the Malaguide Complex from the Sierra Espuna area (Southeastern Spain) has been performed revealing great similarities. The good correlation can be due to a close paleogeographic position in the southern margin of the Paleo- and Mesomediterranean Microplate. Minor variations should be proposed in relation to the position in the margin. Detailed and modern stratigraphic and sedimentological studies are required to propose a more precise paleogeographic framework.

The Sierra Espuna and the Mula-Gebas intramontane basin, SE Spain, represent the Internal-External Zone Boundary (IEZB) of the eastern Betic Cordillera. The Miocene infill of this basin seals the IEZB and is mainly derived from the Internal Zone. This deposition is coeval with a Late Miocene volcanism. Therefore, the study of these sediments is crucial for the source-area provenance, sorting and recycling, paleoclimate, weathering, unroofing and tectonic processes, during the intramontane basins developing of the western peri-Mediterranean Chains. Sandstone detrital modes, and mineralogical and chemical compositions of mudrocks were arranged in two sedimentary cycles: (1) the middle Burdigalian-early Langhian, and (2) the middle Tortonian-early Messinian. The quartzolithic to feldspathic lithoarenites infer the erosion from a lithic-transitional recycled to transitional-quartzose recycled orogen, since low-medium grade metamorphic lithics and rare coeval volcanics with andesitic, andesitic-dacitic and rhyodacitic-rhyolitic sources are present. The mudrocks reveal a felsic (granitic-gneiss) source with a minor mafic input in the Upper Miocene. A shallow burial history and low thermal conditions (

The Onil and Ibi sections (Prebetic Zone, Betic Cordillera: Alicante, SE Spain) record a late Ypresian (Cuisian) to early Lutetian (~51 to ~43 Myr) carbonate platform succession, dated using larger benthic foraminifera (LBF) and planktonic foraminifera. Seven field lithofacies (L1 to L7) and five thin-section microfacies (Mf1–Mf5) were identified, indicating inner- to mid-ramp environments (from seagrass meadows to Maërl-LBF-dominated) in warm-water and low-latitude conditions. A distinctive feature of these platforms is their dominance by LBF in association with rhodophyceae, contrasting with typical coral reef factories. We propose a novel carbonate production model, “TC-factory”, to describe these warm-temperate systems. Integrated field logging, drone imagery, and microfacies data allowed us to define a sequence stratigraphic framework comprising five lower-frequency sequences (LFS: ~2 Myr average duration), each of them nesting various numbers of high-frequency sequences (HFS: ~0.25 to ~1 Myr). The LFSs belong to a higher-rank sequence bounded by regional unconformities. The five LFSs only broadly match the upper Ypresian and lower Lutetian cycles in global eustatic curves (~51 to ~43 Myr), indicating that other regional or local controls were important. The number of HFSs being fewer than expected also suggests additional controls, such as local tectonics, erosion during lowstands, or carbonate production feedback.

According to classical literature, two Paleogene platforms developed along the northern and southern margins of the Neo-Tethys Ocean. Similar platforms have been recognized on the southern margin of a "lost domain" consisting of an independent microplate known as the "Mesomediterranean Microplate" (MM) in the westernmost Neo-Tethys Ocean. This microplate underwent tectonic dismantling and drifting during the opening of the western Mediterranean. The individualized blocks collided with the European and African palaeomargins during the Miocene, forming the Neo-Alpine chains of the western Mediterranean. The regional reconstruction and lateral correlation of Paleogene deposits have provided valuable insights into the paleogeographic and geodynamic evolution of this lost domain. The most representative Paleogene successions lie unconformably over the Palaeozoic basement and Mesozoic sedimentary cover. The sedimentary evolution, source areas, peleoclimate and palaeoenvironments recognized along the Betic and Maghrebian (Rif, Tell, Calabria-Peloritani Arc) chains have also been compared. Reconstructions of the MM using GPlates software have placed the original position of these platforms approximately at 30 degrees N, and between 5 degrees W and 10 degrees E. Along the southern border of this microplate, a northward transition towards continental areas and a southward transition into deeper marine domains were identified. Additionally, distinctions were made between areas with complete Paleogene successions and those with condensed successions, as well as between carbonate-dominated and siliciclastic-dominated platforms.

In the Betic-Rif Cordilleras, recent works have evidenced the existence of well-developed Eocene (Ypresian-Bartonian) carbonate platforms rich in Larger Benthic Foraminifera (LBF). Contrarily to other sectors of the western Tethys, like the Pyrenean domain in the North Iberian Margin, where these platforms started in the early Ypresian (Ilerdian), in the Betic-Rif chains, the recorded Eocene platforms started in the late Ypresian (Cuisian) after a widespread gap of sedimentation including the Ilerdian time span. In this work, the Aspe-Terreros Prebetic section (External Betic Zone) is studied. An Eocene succession with gravity flow deposits consisting of terrigenous and bioclastic turbidites, as well as olistostromes with olistoliths, was detected. In one of these turbidites, we dated (with the inherent limitations when dating bioclasts contained by gravity flow deposits) the middle Ilerdian, on the basis of LBF, representing a vestige of a missing Illerdian carbonate platform. The microfacies of these turbidites and olistoliths rich in LBF have been described and documented in detail. The gap in the sedimentary record and absence of Ilerdian platforms in the Betic-Rif Cordillera have been related to the so-called Eo-Alpine tectonics (Cretaceous to Paleogene) and sea-level variations contemporarily with the establishment of shallow marine realms in the margins of the western Tethys.

Interactive 3D HTML models and visualizations of geological structures derived from classic surface geological information have been developed, for the first time, in a Python environment, using the key case of the tectonic Mula sheets in the Betic Cordillera (southern Spain). These models were performed through several steps: a geological 2D sketch map, creating equispaced geological cross-sections, 3D topography, a complete 3D model, and detailed 3D block diagrams. The result of the extrapolation of the equispaced geological cross-sections and their integration with the geological map into a 3D geological model shows the thrust-faulted and contractionally folded structure of the entire area, which affects the Cretaceous to Lower Miocene succession. The faults (strikeslip and normal) present in the tectonic thrust sheets are also represented. Three detailed 3D HTML blocks of illustrative regions within the modeled area were also created. For the 3D modeling, Bezier curves/surfaces as well as linear interpolation were used, as geological (stratigraphic and tectonic) contacts and surfaces between different stratigraphic units can be expressed geometrically with these tools. Compared to commercial alternatives, our software offers three key advantages: free user-friendly solutions, browser-compatible 3D models, and open-source software. The 3D visualization of stratigraphic-structural architecture enables predictive interpretations with applications in environmental and economic geology (e.g., groundwater, geotechnical studies, mining research, etc.). Moreover, 3D visualization and modeling provide valuable insights into geological phenomena, benefiting both the scientific community and society at large. Furthermore, advances in interactive 3D visualization bridge the gap between cutting-edge geological research and public understanding, enhancing social awareness.

An interactive 3D visualization of stratigraphic and structural architecture of the Crotone Basin, has been tested by using an open-source Python libraries for machine learning KNN and linear interpolation algorithms, together with Geographic Information Systems (GIS). A preliminary test was performed within the onshore-offshore Crotone area (southern Italy), where due to the presence intense exploration field for hydrocarbons (gas) is enriched by a unique stratigraphic dataset available from well cores and seismic profiles. The analysis of 58 different boreholes, subdivided the stratigraphic succession into three main stratigraphic intervals: Pre-Messinian, Messinian, and Post-Messinian. Three interactive HTML 3D models are constructed with Python tools: (1) surfaces separating the stratigraphic intervals by linear interpolation; (2) surfaces by nearest-neighbor interpolation; and (3) volumes of the three units. These models allow to visualize the stratigraphic and tectonic architecture of the Crotone Basin in a virtual and modelling detail.

A broad region of Mesozoic to Cenozoic tectonism along the western and central Circum-Mediterranean (CM) margins, from southern Spain (Betic Cordillera) to the northern Morocco (Rif) and Italy (Apennines), includes huge volumes of sedimentary record since the Late Paleozoic. These sediments are contemporaneous and related with the fragmentation of the Pangean supercontinent due to the rifting and progressive closure, as well as the following birth of the CM orogeny. The composition and stratigraphic relations of clastics in diverse sedimentary basins of the CM region reflect a complete record of provenance relations related to the progressive destruction of the Neotethyan Ocean and plate convergence between the two major plates of Europe and Africa, and Iberia, Adria and Mesomediterranean micrplates located between them. The changing nature of clastic wedges reflects the provenance relations from different source rocks involving obduction of the oceanic lithosphere, the uplifted Alpine-Mediterranean Chains, and the accreted previously deformed Mesomediterranean Microplate (AlKaPeCa), as well local neovolcanic sources, within the spatial and temporal evolving geo-puzzle terranes of the CM orogeny. The provenance evolution of sediment provides insights into how plate convergence and continental collision direct the sediment dispersal pathway in Cenozoic basins due to closure of eastern and southern Alpine-Tethyan remnant ocean basins and to the dual dispersal pathways from the previously born Alps and the nascent AlKaPeCa at the expenses of the previously deformed Mesomediterranean terranes. The source-to-sink relations testify episodic deformation events, diachronous Tethyan basin development, differentiate sediment provenance from exhumed and uplifted Alpine and CM orogens, and palaeogeographic rearrangement of crustal blocks along the nascent Mediterranean region.

The Carboniferous detrital suites of the Ghomaride Subdomain (Rif Cordillera, N Morocco) has been undertaken in order to obtain paleogeographic and paleotectonic constraints. Microconglomerate and sandstone samples from eight sections belonging to four sectors were petrographically studied. This northern Gondwana domain was part of the Paleo-Mesomediterranean Plate, located between the Iberian-French Plates and the African Paleo-Atlas-Saharian Domain, which outlines a gap of knowledge since these domains are now part of the Alpine peri-Mediterranean chains. Part of this data-lacking is related to the sandstone detrital modes that have never studied in this area, allowing to obtain information about provenance derived from growing orogens, as well as orogenic processes, and tectonic, climatic and/or erosional events. The study has revealed that the sandstones are litharenites to feldsphatic litharenites, evolving upward to lithic arkoses, and has evidenced a quartzolithic petrofacies with a transitional recycled orogen provenance. The metamorphiclastic detritus displays a low to middle-upper metamorphic rank upwardly referred to a subducted terrane. Serpentinite-like detritus indicates a metamorphosed oceanic crust being dismantled. A supply from the Rheic Ocean seems improbable since it was very far and beyond the Iberian Plate. Therefore, closer oceanic sutures should be proposed, probably separating the Paleo-Mesomediterranean Plate from the Iberian-French Plate and from the Paleo-Atlas-Saharian Domain. The sin-sedimentary volcanic activity (felsic to mafic) reinforces the idea of subductions. A correlation with other Culm successions of the western Paleotethys has allowed the performing of a paleogeographic-paleotectonic model during the Paleotethysian tectonic phase, in which the studied sandstones were deposited in a foredeep connected northward with limestone platforms and with a crystalline emerged domain (hinterland-orogenic front: Iberia-French Plate and part of the Paleo-Mesomediterranean Plate) and transitioning southward to an oceanic branch of the western Paleotethys, and finally with the Paleo-Atlas-Saharian band acting as passive margin in the foreland.

A model of the Cenozoic tectono-sedimentary evolution of the External Rif Chain (Morocco) is provided by means of the study of the mineralogical and geochemical composition of mudrocks. To date there was a lack of homogeneous data and of a complete and extensive study of the whole External Rif Zone (ERZ). Therefore, this work shows the study of the whole ERZ where the most representative stratigraphic sections have been selected. This work provides important information about the geodynamic evolution and the variations in source-area provenance related to the growing of the Rif orogenic belt. Although there is still much work to be done, this study aims to improve the knowledge of the Cenozoic tectono-sedimentary evolution of the entire western ERZ with a homogeneous method, with a focus on the paleogeographic and paleotectonic evolution, the paleoweathering and the source areas deduced from mineralogical and geochemical data of the Cenozoic mudrocks. The bulk mineralogy is mainly characterized by the presence of calcite, quartz and dolomite plus ankerite. Feldspars have few percentages. The clay minerals are principally represented by mixed-layer illite/smectite (I/S). Illite and kaolinite are in little amount. Femic minerals, mixed-layer chlorite/smectite (C/S) and chlorite are the most abundant. The I/S features suggest a different thermal condition for the three domains. The chemical composition indicates that the mudrocks can be described as mixtures of carbonates with aluminosilicate components. The Al/Ti, Th/Cr, Th/Sc, La/Th and La/Sc ratios, the Cr/V vs. Y/Ni plot, the V-Ni-Th*10 and La-Th-Sc ternary diagrams indicate a predominantly felsic source with a minor mafic input more evident in the Paleocene-Eocene samples of the External Intrarif and Mesorif. The External Rif Zones changed in the Cenozoic from a passive margin to a complex foreland system with the incoming of the Alpine tectonic phases. In general, the felsic contribution should be linked to the foreland area consisting in the Middle Atlas and Mesetas massifs made of a crystalline domain. This margin probably presented an intermediate narrow oceanic branch in the External Intrarif-Mesorif boundary that surprisingly should start to close during Paleogene times providing the mafic contribution. This Paleogene tectonic activity in these domains is corroborated by the thermal maturity indicating late diagenesis. The chemical weathering indices, such as the CIA (Chemical index of Alteration) and its modifications, show medium-high values and thus suggest generally moderate paleoweathering conditions in agreement with the predominant amount of I/S.

The 3D modeling and representation of geological data have experienced significant growth within last years, due to the use of new technologies derived from advancements in land representation methods. These technologies enable interactive, intuitive and clear geological visualizations. This paper shows how, by using the open-source Python software (operable with a simple internet browser) for machine learning (linear and KNN interpolations), together with Geographic Information Systems (GIS), it is possible to achieve interactive 3D visualizations of geological features in sedimentary basins. This study is performed in the onshore-offshore Crotone area (southern Italy) where a large amount of stratigraphic datasets are available from core perforation and seismic profiles due to the presence of a natural gas extraction field. Thanks to a database of 63 drilling lithologies and 43 check point obtained from the 9 interpreted seismic sections, records several 3D HTML models were constructed defining three stratigraphic units (Pre-Messinian, Messinian, and Post-Messinian). An overlap of the Post-Messinian top surface and an erosional truncation of the Messinian top surface toward the N were observed, together with a rising of the Pre-Messinian top surface in the northwestern area. This stratigraphic architecture may indicate a differential subsidence and/or uplifting due to syn-sedimentary fault kinematics in the whole studied area. The 3D models with the stratigraphic unit boundary surfaces obtained with KNN interpolation (the surfaces appear with stepped and abrupt edges) allowed the interpretation in terms of structural architecture and syn-sedimentary fault kinematics. Three main sets of faults were deduced: N–S set; NNW-SSE set, and ENE-WSW set. A minorly represented E-W set was added to the main sets. These faults generated a horsts-grabens structure, and in many cases a determinate set of faults generate a progressive lowering or rising of some areas with an “en echelon” arrangement. According to previous work, these deduced sets of faults (most of them are strike-slip faults) have a good agreement with the general structural architecture and defined faults in the area.

The Miocene evolution of the External Rif Zone (NW Africa Plate) was determined through the multidisciplinary analysis of fourteen successions. The updated stratigraphic framework shows how Miocene sediments rest on the Cretaceous–Paleogene terrains through unconformity surfaces, whereas it rests with sedimentary continuity in two sectors. After recognition of lithofacies and three unconformities located near the Oligocene–Aquitanian, Aquitanian–Burdigalian and Serravallian–Tortonian boundaries, the Miocene sedimentary record was divided into three stratigraphic intervals representing deep to shallow marine deposits as Aquitanian–Burdigalian, Langhian and Upper Serravallian–Missinian. The two oldest unconformites are restricted to the central sector, while the upper one is generalized and probably related to the nappe tectonics registered in all sectors of the External Rif. Data from analysis of tectofacies, petrology, mineralogy, meaning and implications of unconformities, and subsidence indicate that: (i) mass flow deposits (turbidites, slumps, olistostromes) are common in all successions but more frequent during the Lower Miocene; (ii) petrology of the detrital components of the arenites indicates recycled orogen-derived sediments, with quartz coming from erosion of metamorphic rocks of the Atlas orogen and/or the African craton; (iii) mineralogy of mudstones suggests a complex erosional evolution of local emerged areas derived from a mixture of contributions coming from the erosion of Upper Jurassic to Paleogene suites, and especially from kaolinite-rich Albian–Cenomanian to Paleogene successions with absence of a clear unroofing. The conjunction of all these clues reinforce the idea of a synsedimentary tectonics affecting the margin/basin system during the Miocene. A thickness analysis of the studied sedimentary successions allows proposing the evolution of the orogenic front and main depozones (foredeep, bulges, wedge-top and intramontane sub-basins) integrated in a complex foreland system migrating from north to south with the Atlas-Mesetas area acting as foreland during MIocene. The orogenic front moved from the Internal Intrarif to Mesorif and later to Internal Prerif. The main wedge-top basin also migrated from the Internal Intrarif to External Intrarif. The foredeep migrated from the Mesorif to the Internal Prerif, while the main forebulge was located in the External Prerif and a asecondary bulge developed in the External Intrarif. Intramontane basins developed behind the orogenic front in relative extensional conditions moving from the Internal Extrarif to External Intrarif. The reconstructed Miocene evolution was inserted into a 2D paleogeographic-geodynamic evolutionary model using Gplates software, and then compared to those reported in other external margins of the western Tethys (Betic Chain, Tunisian Tell, Sicilian Maghrebids and Apennines), revealing important similarities and local differences.

&lt;p&gt;The Cenozoic tectono-sedimentary evolution of the External Rif Zone (ERZ) has been studied based on an integrated analysis of twenty-two representative stratigraphic successions grouped in seven sectors from N to S: Tangier, Asilah, Chaouen, Zoumi, Ouezzane, Ourtzarh and the Prerifian Ridges. The ERZ is divided classically, from N to S, into Intrarif, Mesorif and Prerif sub-domains. Each sub-domain is subdivided further in to internal and external. The Cenozoic stratigraphic record of the ERZ can be roughly separated into five main stratigraphic intervals bounded by five main unconformities corresponding to the Cretaceous-Paleogene, Eocene-Oligocene, Oligocene-Miocene, Burdigalian-Langhian and middle-late Mioceneboundaries. Each unconformity can be related to a local or regional tectonic events: (1) the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary unconformity to the tectonic inversion (from extension to compression) occurring in the alpine Tethys domain in the upper Cretaceous ; (2) the Eocene-Oligocene boundary to a flexure phase in the Atlas front; (3) the unconformity that marks the Oligocene-Miocene boundary can result from the starting of the nappes stacking phase in the Internal Zone; (4) the Burdigalian-Langhian boundary unconformity to the end of structuring of the Internal Zone; and (5) the middle-late Miocene boundary unconformity to the nappes stacking phase in the ERZ. The Paleogene evolution can mainly be correlated with the so-called Eo-alpine orogenic phase, while the Miocene one is related to the Mio-Alpine, both recognized in the western Mediterranean area. As a fundamental part of this research, the analysis of synsedimentary tectonics have been performed, considering tectofacies, unconformity implications and subsidence analysis. Tectofacies (such as, turbidites, slumps, mass flow deposits, synsedimentary folds and faults) are checked from the upper Ypresian succession onward, but more frequently during the Oligocene and Miocene, which point out an upward increase in the tectonic activity. Considering the ERZ as a foreland basin, the Eocene foredeep area would correspond to the Internal Mesorif and Internal Prerif sub-domains. This foredeep was represented by a complex of two &amp;#8220;sub-geosynclines&amp;#8221; separated by a relative bulge located in the External Mesorif. In this way, the Intrarif could represent the relative orogenic front (advanging on the Internal Rif Zone). The Eocene forebulge was located in the External Prerif, while the Gharb Basin was the backbulge of the system. During the Oligocene the depocentral area migrated southward favoring a homogenization of subsidence in the whole ERZ. In this new configuration, the foredeep would be located in the External Mesorif (formerly a relative bulge) while the External Prerif and the Gharb Basin continued to act as the forebulge and the backbulge of the system, respectively. During the early Miocene a new diversification of depocenter took place with the main foredeep in the Internal Mesorif and secondary foredeeps areas in the externalmost and internalmost Intrarif. In this period, the forebulge should be located in the middle Intrarif. Finally, during middle Miocene foredeep were located in the externalmost Intrarif and Internal Prerif while in the late Miocene depocenter migrates southward to the Extenal Prerif-Gharb areas (formerly forebulge and backbulge areas).&lt;/p&gt;

Carboniferous sandstone within the Paleo-Mesomediterranean Domain (Malaguide Subdomain), in southern Spain, represents a key detrital mode within the sedimentary budget of convergent plate boundaries during the Variscan s.s. to Paleotethysian orogenic time span (approximate to 420-300 Ma). This Carboniferous detritus corresponds with Culm lithostratigraphic depositional unit, and it covers an important gap of information (paleogeographic, paleotectonic, source areas) to the area located between the Iberian-French massifs and the African Paleo-Atlas, in the western Paleotethys. Sandstone composition is quartzolithic and records an important high-to-medium-low grade metamorphic content. The source area was a lithic and transitional recycled orogen with a signature of volcanic and ophiolitic detritus (approximate to 330 Ma and/or older). These supplies seem to be derived from a mid-crustal deformed and thrusted pre-late Ordovician to Early Carboniferous terrane, involved in the plate convergence (the southern Europe Iberian-French massifs overriding the north African area) southeatwards of the Variscan s.s. orogenic system, rapidly exhumed and uplifted at mid-Late Carboniferoous time. Consequently, in the overriding hinterland (southern Europe: IberianFrench massifs), metamorphic basement should be already structured during middle Carboniferous when thrusting took place and deposition of Culm facies started in the Malaguide Complex, suggesting Proterozoic-Early Carboniferous (most probably, approximate to 420 to 330 Ma) metamorphic highlands. The presence of serpentinite-like detritus (approximate to 330 Ma and/or older) seems to indicate a metamorphosed oceanic crust being dismantled at that time. Thus, sources from ophiolitic suture (most probably developed at approximate to 420-330 Ma) zones are tentatively proposed in other northern Gondwana of southwestern Europe. The occurrence of a synsedimentary volcanic activity (andesitic) should be related to a lost magmatic arc (most probably developed at approximate to 360-330 Ma), reinforcing the idea of a nearby subduction area. Therefore, the thick terrigenous Culm deposits (approximate to 330-300 Ma) from the Malaguide Subdomain could be deposited in a complex foreland system basin connected northward with carbonate platforms and with a crystalline highland uplifted domain from the southern Europe Iberian-French massifs and southward with the African PaleoAtlas Domain. The studied mid- to late Carboniferous sandstone petrofacies deeply contributes to paleogeographic reconstructions since block fragmentation and spreading, during the Paleotethysian and Alpine orogenies, rearranged the Paleozoic paleogeography now part of the Cenozoic Perimediterranean Chains. After the correlation with the Carboniferous from other western Paleotethys domains, new paleogeographic-paleotectonic constraints are proposed for the transitional area between the Iberian-French massifs and the African Paleo-Atlas Domain. (c) 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).