Historically, felids are thought to follow a social structure where individuals are solitary and limit interactions with other individuals of the same sex. Behaviorally it is understood that individual male cats defend territories from others, which limits social interactions between individuals outside of reproduction. However, there are frequent reports that felid populations exhibit more social tolerance than previously described. In South Texas, Bobcat (Lynx rufus) densities are suspected to be high and observational evidence of trapping rates and camera trap data indicate that there may be a high degree of overlap among home ranges of bobcats in South Texas. Using data from VHF and GPS collared bobcats collected between 1985 to 2024, we investigated Bobcat home range overlap and proximity across South Texas. We calculated 95% autocorrelated kernel density estimates and quantified the degree of home range overlap between conspecific individuals. For those individual pairs that had > 13.2% overlap (the mean overlap of all pairs), we estimated whether individuals moved independently, avoided each other, or moved closer to one another. From 1981 to 2024, the average Bobcat home range was 7.91 km2 (95% confidence interval = 6.43 to 9.62 km2) and did not significantly change for males or females across decades. We observed 102 instances of home range overlap, 59 in VHF-monitored individuals and 43 of them in GPS-monitored bobcats. From our proximity analysis of GPS-monitored bobcats, individuals primarily moved independently of one another but did not avoid each other as much as might be expected, especially in same-sex comparisons. Using a long-term dataset on bobcats, we reveal that bobcats are not inherently solitary within our study system. Our work provides a framework for examining social interactions in other traditionally solitary animals.

ABSTRACT Roads are a major source of landscape fragmentation that can influence movement patterns, survival, and behavioral states of carnivore species. Understanding their behavior and response to roads is crucial for developing effective mitigation strategies such as wildlife crossing structures, exclusion fencing, and habitat connectivity planning. We examined the behavioral response of bobcats (Lynx rufus) from private ranchlands adjacent to US Highway 77 in South Texas. We used GPS collar data to track the movement of 10 bobcats (six males and four females) to quantify fine‐scale movement behavior and space use. We used Hidden Markov Models (HMMs) to predict three behavioral states of each individual movement pattern: State 1 (resting), State 2 (moderately active), and State 3 (traveling). Our model indicated that the interaction of distance to the highway and sex influenced bobcat behavioral state transitions. Male and female bobcats differed in nocturnal movement behavior, with females exhibiting slightly longer mean step length (distance between two consecutive relocations) than males, while turning angles (angle between previous and current displacement) were similar between both sexes during the resting state. Both sexes spent most of their time in the moderately active state (State 2) across all distance to highway classes. This behavior is consistent with foraging, territorial patrolling, and searching for mates during night hours. Although both sexes were moderately active, females reduced movement closer to the highway, whereas males showed more extensive travel. Home ranges of some bobcats overlapped and frequently abutted US Highway 77, suggesting the highway may function as a behavioral and spatial boundary. These findings highlight how expanding highways may reduce functional connectivity for bobcats and other felids and may inform mitigation strategies to reduce wildlife‐vehicle collisions, with potential applications for the conservation of sympatric felids like ocelots (Leopardus pardalis).

Anthropogenic noise (anthrophony) can have significant negative effects on wildlife, causing both physiological (i.e., increased stress hormone production) and behavioral (i.e., altered anti-predator behaviors, space use, or diel activity) changes in individuals. Roads are a major source of anthrophony, often contributing the most to the anthrophony in rural areas. Most efforts to reduce road effects on wildlife have focused on decreasing road-associated mortality through the construction of wildlife crossing structures (WCSs) with little consideration for the anthrophony associated with these structures. Given the impacts of anthrophony on wildlife behavior, the effectiveness of WCSs could be altered without consideration of noise pollution. Therefore, understanding how anthrophony is structured in space and time and how it impacts WCS use is an important aspect of assessing the effectiveness of WCSs. We developed a framework for assessing anthrophony at WCS using an array of autonomous recording units to monitor overall acoustic conditions. We then examined how wildlife crossing rates were associated with anthrophony using camera traps. We monitored five underpass-style WCSs built in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of South Texas, USA, using camera traps and acoustic recording units. We measured sound pressure level (SPL [dB]) and relative level of anthrophony (using the normalized difference soundscape index [NDSI]) at six positions around each WCS: two at elevation (road grade) with the road surface (west and east), two at the WCS entrances, and two in the middle of the WCSs. We then used SPL and NDSI to predict the probability of a successful crossing by Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana), a common, disturbance-tolerant mammal. While the relative amount of anthrophony did not differ, smaller WCSs and those with less traffic were up to 40 dB quieter than larger WCSs and those with more traffic. Opossums spent more time at WCSs when it was quieter on average and were more likely to successfully cross through a WCS when there was less vehicle noise. Our study highlights the importance of considering soundscapes in assessing WCS effectiveness and represents a framework that can be used for further exploration of the impacts of anthrophony on WCS use.

The ocelot, Leopardus pardalis, is a medium-size member of the cat family Felidae found throughout the Neotropics. This solitary, nocturnal species is of increasing conservation concern in the United States due to habitat loss and fragmentation. Historically, the northern extent of the species range extended throughout the American Southwest. Today this subspecies, Leopardus pardalis albescens, is restricted to just two small, isolated populations in South Texas. Conservation genomics can provide invaluable insights into the genetic status and management of declining populations, however, there is currently no reference genome available for this species. To address this deficit, here we report a high-quality chromosome-level reference genome for the Texas ocelot, with a total length of 2.47 Gb placed on 211 scaffolds. The assembly is highly contiguous, with a contig N50 of 84 Mb and 99.2% gene completeness. This assembly provides a key genomic resource that will enhance ongoing conservation and management strategies for this endangered subspecies.

Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) populations in southern Texas have shown declines in genetic variability over time. Assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs11Assisted Reproductive Technologies), such as semen cryopreservation and artificial insemination (AI22Artificial Insemination), can help improve species sustainability by preserving genetic diversity and connecting populations by transport of frozen gametes. Traditionally, felid semen has been cryopreserved by slow freezing in plastic straws (STRAW) for liquid nitrogen storage. However, another technique, ultra-rapid freezing (URF33Ultra- rapid Freezing), would decrease the time and effort needed to preserve samples and potentially facilitate cryopreservation in the field. The goal of this study was to compare the effectiveness of URF to traditional STRAW freezing with two wild felid species living in southern Texas. Semen was collected by urethral catheterization (UC44Urethral Catheterization) and electroejaculation (EEJ55Electroejaculation) and frozen using both cryopreservation methods from 12 free-ranging adult felids (n=6 ocelots; n=6 bobcats (Lynx rufus)). Post-thaw, sperm samples were assessed for progressive motility, acrosomal integrity, and heterologous in-vitro fertilization (IVF66In-Vitro Fertilization) of domestic cat oocytes. For both species, sperm acrosomal integrity, percent progressive motility, and rate of forward progression declined (p<0.001) over time, with no difference (p>0.05) between cryopreservation methods. Frozen-thawed spermatozoa from both species fertilized mature domestic cat oocytes (range, 8.3 – 100%), and oocyte cleavage percentage did not differ (p>0.05) between cryopreservation techniques. Our initial results suggest that URF, in combination with UC, may allow wildlife veterinarians to routinely collect and bank semen samples from free-ranging cats for conservation purposes.

Wildlife populations are in decline due to human threats, including highways. Strategies for reducing road impacts on wildlife include wildlife fencing which keep animals off roads and wildlife crossing structures (WCSs) which provide safe passage across roads. Wildlife crossing structures are diverse and transportation managers are often interested in identifying which WCS designs are effective for target species so a model that predicts target species usage of WCSs is likely to be beneficial to managers and biologists. Wildlife crossing structures are typically built for select species but are utilized by other species, so it may be beneficial to examine WCS use at the community level. We used camera trap data to develop a predictive model of mammal community composition at WCSs built for ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) to predict total detections, successful crossings, and failed crossings using spatial, temporal, structural, environmental, and anthropogenic characteristics. During the first-year after construction of WCSs, structural and anthropogenic characteristics of the WCSs were more important than the environmental characteristics although we expect environmental characteristics to become more important with time. Our models reasonably predicted total detections but were less effective at predicting successful and failed crossings, likely due to potential finer-scale, more dynamic effects like noise or microclimate conditions that may drive an animal's decision to use a WCS. While our study focused on WCSs built for ocelots, to our knowledge, our model is the first model of WCS effectiveness for mammal communities and provide a generalized framework for predicting WCS use which can be applied anywhere where WCSs are being built.

Home ranges reflect a trade-off between the costs and benefits associated with acquiring resources and are influenced by complex interactions among intrinsic and extrinsic factors. These factors can lead to different spatial and temporal patterns to acquire the necessary resources that meet energetic and reproductive needs. Identifying the drivers of these strategies concurrently across spatiotemporal scales remains rare but is essential for identifying landscape constraints on populations in rapidly changing systems. We examined spatiotemporal drivers of home range size of the federally endangered ocelot (Leopardus pardalis; [22 Males, 12 Females]) in the two remaining populations in the USA. Males increased home range size during reproductive periods while females constrained their home range, but increased in size to match the demands of reproduction. Habitat complexity and the associated prey diversity and abundance were related to smaller home range size. Our results suggest that home range variation is a response to environmental conditions and annual changes in life history. Sex-specific drivers of home range size across space and time—in the context of habitat loss, shifting climate patterns, and changing resource productivity—can help identify management and habitat restoration targets for small and declining populations.

Disturbance from vehicle noise and human activity extends into nearby habitat, creating a road effect zone characterized by changes in wildlife community structure and species behavior. This can affect conservation efforts along roads, such as wildlife crossing construction. To ensure that conservation efforts are effective, it is important to understand how mammals use road areas. We aimed to assess how traffic volume and distance to highway influenced mammal beta diversity within the road effect zone. We placed camera traps along a low-traffic and high-traffic highway in Texas, USA, between May 2022 to April 2023. We placed camera traps using a randomized block design with transects set perpendicular to the roadway. Starting 50 m from the road, seven camera traps were set at 200 m intervals in each of seven transects. We assessed how traffic volume and distance from road affected mammal beta diversity. We detected nearly all known mammal species larger than rodents (24 species) in the study area, including all known carnivores (10 species). We detected fewer species around the high-volume road, which contributed to a significant difference in beta diversity between the low and high-volume roads. Additionally, community composition tended to be more variable around the high-volume road than the low-volume road. Our study provides insights into the impacts of vehicle traffic on mammal use of road effect zones. Traffic volume is an important indicator of mammal community composition around roads, and road mitigation structures for wildlife will need to account for and mitigate potential effects of traffic volume.

Worldwide, transportation agencies have been involved in road mitigation efforts to reduce road mortality and promote connectivity of endangered species. Baseline data on how mammals respond to highway construction, however, are rarely collected in road mitigation and monitoring studies, including in the USA. Our goal in this study was to assess differences in the response of the mammal community to highway construction along a gradient of human land use (HLU) from July 2019 to November 2020 in southern Texas, USA. We compared the species composition of the terrestrial mammal community at five sites along a highway before and during highway construction and assessed diel activity for seven species at different HLU levels between these two time periods. We found that mammal community composition was lower during the construction period at each HLU level. There were greater differences in the composition of the mammal community in the pre-construction and construction periods as HLU decreased. Community diversity was greatest in areas with a low level of HLU, followed by areas of medium and high levels, with more carnivores, large ungulates, and rodents at medium and low HLU sites. For many species, diel activity patterns across all sites during the construction period reflected activity patterns in areas of higher HLU during the pre-construction period. Our study shows that community composition and behavior (diel activity) are likely to change in response to highway construction regardless of the degree of HLU. These results may influence how scientists and transportation agencies consider potential impacts on wildlife species during road construction and affect their attempt to mitigate these impacts.

Context There is a growing appreciation that wildlife behavioral responses to environmental conditions are scale-dependent and that identifying the scale where the effect of an environmental variable on a behavior is the strongest (i.e., scale of effect) can reveal how animals perceive and respond to their environment. In South Texas, brush management often optimizes agricultural and wildlife management objectives through the precise interspersion of vegetation types creating novel environments which likely affect animal behavior at multiple scales. There is a lack of understanding of how and at what scales this management regime and associated landscape patterns influence wildlife. Objectives Our objective was to examine the scale at which landscape patterns had the strongest effect on wildlife behavior. Bobcats (Lynx rufus) our model species, are one of the largest obligated carnivores in the system, and have strong associations with vegetation structure and prey density, two aspects likely to influenced by landscape patterns. We conducted a multiscale resource selection analysis to identify the characteristic scale where landscape patterns had the strongest effect on resource selection. Methods We examined resource selection within the home range for 9 bobcats monitored from 2021 to 2022 by fitting resource selection functions which included variables representing landcover, water, energy infrastructure, and landscape metrics (edge density, patch density, and contagion). We fit models using landscape metrics calculated at 10 different scales and compared model performance to identify the scale of effect of landscape metrics on resource selection. ResultsThe scale of effect of landscape metrics occurred at finer scales. The characteristic scale for edge density and patch density was 30 m (the finest scale examined), and the characteristic scale for contagion occurred at 100 m. Bobcats avoided locations with high woody patch density and selected for greater woody edge density and contagion. Bobcats selected areas closer to woody vegetation and water bodies while avoiding herbaceous cover and energy development infrastructure. Conclusions A key step in understanding the effect of human development and associated landscape patterns on animal behavior is the identifying the scale of effect. We found support for our hypothesis that resource selection would be most strongly affected by landscape configuration at finer scales. Our study demonstrates the importance of cross-scale comparisons when examining the effects of landscape attributes on animal behavior.

Abstract Wildlife depends on specific landscape features to persist. Thus, characterizing the vegetation available in an area can be essential for management. The ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) is a federally endangered, medium‐sized felid adapted to woody vegetation. Quantifying the characteristics of vegetation most suitable for ocelots is essential for their conservation. Furthermore, understanding differences in the selection of sympatric bobcats (Lynx rufus) and coyotes (Canis latrans) can provide insight into the mechanisms of coexistence between species. Because of differences in hunting strategy (cursorial vs. ambush) and differences in use of land cover types between species, these three carnivores may be partitioning their landscape as a function of vegetation structure. Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) is a remote sensing platform capable of quantifying the sub‐canopy structure of vegetation. Using LiDAR data, we quantified the horizontal and vertical structure of vegetation cover to assess habitat selection by ocelots, bobcats, and coyotes. We captured and collared 8 ocelots, 13 bobcats, and 5 coyotes in southern Texas from 2017 to 2021. We used step selection functions to determine the selection of vegetation cover at the population and individual level for each species. Ocelots selected for vertical canopy cover and dense vegetation 0–2 m in height. Bobcats selected cover to a lesser extent and had a broader selection, while coyotes avoided under‐story vegetation and selected areas with dense high canopies and relatively open understories. We observed a high degree of variation among individuals that may aid in facilitating intraspecific and interspecific coexistence. Management for ocelots should prioritize vegetation below 2 m and vertical canopy cover. We provide evidence that fine‐scale habitat partitioning may facilitate coexistence between sympatric carnivores. Differences among individuals may enhance coexistence among species, as increased behavioral plasticity of individuals can reduce competition for resources. By combining accurate, fine‐scale measurements derived from LiDAR data with high‐frequency global positioning system locations, we provide a more thorough understanding of the habitat use of ocelots and two sympatric carnivores.

BackgroundComplexity in landscape structure is often assessed using individual metrics related to ecological processes. However, this rarely incorporates important relationships among metrics and may miss landscape structure effects. Multivariate statistics provide techniques for assessing overall landscape structure effects. We assessed how multivariate statistics could be used to connect landscape structure with an ecological process [bobcat (Lynx rufus) wildlife crossing structure (WCS) use]. We tested how landscape structure at WCS sites compared to the surrounding landscape and how structure affected detections at WCS sites. Our study was conducted in Cameron County, Texas, USA where WCSs are in various stages of construction and monitoring. We used a classified land use/land cover map and aerial LiDAR to calculate configuration and density metrics at WCS and random sites. We created indices for configuration and density using principal components analysis to assess landscape structure effects on camera trap detections at WCSs.ResultsLandscape structure at WCSs did not differ from random locations. Wildlife crossing structure use increased with greater woody cover and decreased with increasing vegetation density. Our indices allowed identification of differences in how configuration and density impacted WCS use. Ordination methods helped identify individual contributions of landscape metrics to the overall landscape structure effect.ConclusionsWildlife crossing structures are permanent fixtures on landscapes, so selecting appropriate locations using broad-scale landscape structure likely increases target species use. Using indices of landscape structure provides planners with a more holistic approach to WCS placement and provides a more comprehensive picture of landscape pattern and process relationships.

Decreased genetic diversity and possible inbreeding depression have recently been documented in the last wild ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) population in the United States. One consequence of inbreeding depression in felids may be reduced semen quality which can adversely affect reproductive potential. Detailed assessments of reproductive parameters in wild individuals and populations can be conducted using assisted reproductive technologies, such as semen collection and analysis. For most felid species, semen has traditionally been collected via electroejaculation (EEJ(2)); however, an alternative method has been developed using alpha-2 agonist drugs to induce direct sperm release into the urethra, allowing collection by catheterization without requiring specialized equipment. The goal of this study was to characterize normative reproductive traits in free-ranging ocelots and co-occurring bobcats (Lynx rufus) in southern Texas and assess the effectiveness of urethral catheterization (UC3) for semen recovery in both species. For semen collection, free-ranging cats were live-captured and anesthetized using intramuscular ketamine and medetomidine/dexmedetomidine (alpha-2 agonist) with UC conducted 20-40 minutes post-induction. In ocelots only, EEJ was subsequently performed if UC failed to recover a viable sample. Semen collection was attempted in 31 felids (n=9 ocelots; n=22 bobcats), with sperm recovery by UC in seven of nine ocelots (78 %) and 14 of 22 bobcats (66 %), and by EEJ in four of five ocelots (80 %). For ocelots, the percentage of primary morphologic abnormalities was higher (p<0.001) for UC (47.75 +/- 6.7; mean +/- SEM) compared to EEJ (9 +/- 2.7) but percent normal morphology (MORPH) did not differ between UC and EEJ (p=0.218). In wild ocelots, seminal parameters appeared lower relative to historical values reported for zoo-managed ocelots, possibly related to reduced heterozygosity. In wild bobcats, seminal traits were inferior to those of ocelots but similar to reports for other zoo-managed Lynx species. In conclusion, detailed male reproductive traits have been characterized for the first time in wild, free-ranging ocelots and bobcats in southern Texas. Although UC allowed semen recovery for assessment of seminal traits in both species, EEJ produced higher quality samples in ocelots when applied after UC while also mitigating the adverse impact of urine contamination observed frequently with both collection methods.

Assessment of locations where wildlife species cross highways is a key question in mitigating future wildlife-vehicle mortality. Examination of the spatial structure, complexities, and patterns of vegetation or other land-use types (i.e., cropland, urban areas) near roadways allows scientists to identify any thresholds that influence where animals are likely to die or successfully cross the roadway. We used a historic 1982 to 2017 dataset of ocelot ( Leopardus pardalis pardalis ) mortality locations and approximate road crossing locations of telemetered ocelots in the Lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas to examine the spatial structure of woody vegetation within a hypothesized road effect zone. We determined if there were differences in the spatial structure of woody cover within a 1050 m buffer of each successful crossing and roadkill location using PERMANOVA and principal component analyses. We used a similarity percentages analysis to determine the relative contribution of each aspect of spatial structure on differences in successful crossing and roadkill locations. We found statistically significant differences in spatial attributes of patches at the locations of successful crossing versus roadkill locations of ocelots at the 150 m spatial extent (pseudo-F 1,41 = 4.85, P(perm) = 0.008, permutations = 9949). Largest patch index contributed most to the differences between successful crossing and roadkill locations (15.94%), followed by mean patch area (15.44%), percent woody cover (15.18%), aggregation indices (14.53%), Euclidean nearest neighbor (13.47%), edge (13.08%) and patch densities (12.36%). Roadkill locations were clustered in locations with lower-quality woody cover within 300 m of the highway. This suggests areas immediately surrounding roads need to contain woody patches that are larger and closer together to reduce the barrier-effects of roads. Such information is important for informing highway planners about where to encourage crossings or to build wildlife crossing structures to promote movement across the highway.

AimMitigating the effects of extreme conditions is a mechanism that can structure the activity patterns and habitat selection of a species and may particularly impact species at the extremes of their geographic distribution. Furthermore, changing climate patterns have the potential to influence biotic interactions between species in novel ways. As two species at the edges of their northern and southern distributions, respectively, ocelots and bobcats may face unique pressure compared to individuals in more central portions of their range. Our objective was to describe the selection of thermal cover by ocelots and bobcats to examine whether partitioning of thermal resources was occurring or if this was a source of potential interspecific competition.LocationWe monitored eight ocelots and 13 bobcats in South Texas, USA.MethodsWe compared selection within, above, and below their estimated thermoneutral zones to examine the effect of varying temperature on habitat selection. Additionally, we stationed 130 black globe thermal sensors to describe the thermal properties of the various cover types.ResultsWe observed variation in habitat selection across temperatures and species. Ocelots and bobcats selected for shrub cover and vertical canopy cover when cold stressed. When heat stressed, both species avoided bare ground and selected for higher vertical canopy cover and were located closer to dense cover. Black globe measurements revealed differences in environmental temperature across cover types, with forest and shrub cover significantly lower than herbaceous or bare ground.Main conclusionsChanging climates may influence interspecific competition and alter areas of sympatry through range shifts. Our results stress the importance of dense shrub cover and forested canopy as thermal refuge for ocelots and bobcats and suggest that abundant vegetation may mitigate the effects of interspecific competition during lower temperatures and niche partitioning may reduce interspecific competition during upper temperature limits, providing support for the interactive range-limit theory.

The competitive exclusion principle states that ecologically similar species will be unable to coexist due to competition for resources, however, similar species coexist across a variety of ecosystems. Understanding mechanisms of coexistence is essential for managing a target species. Advances in monitoring technology have provided the ability to obtain reliable, high-frequency data on wildlife. From these data, behavioral states can be approximated by analyzing turning angles and distances between locations. We monitored 8 ocelots Leopardus pardalis, 13 bobcats Lynx rufus and 5 coyotes Canis latrans on the East Foundation's El Sauz Ranch and the Yturria San Francisco Ranch in south Texas, USA, which were fitted with GPS collars that collected locations every 30 min. We characterized behavioral states using hidden Markov models. We assumed low turning angles and longer steps to represent patrolling territory, larger turning angles with shorter steps would represent hunting behavior, and low angles and minimal movement would indicate periods of rest. If differences in timing and space use exist between species, these differences may help facilitate coexistence. We predicted 1) each species exhibits three behavioral states: resting, hunting and territory patrolling; 2) ocelots moved farther (i.e. territory patrolling) in open areas and rested in dense cover; and 3) bobcats and coyotes would remain in more open areas than ocelots. We found ocelots and bobcats remained closer to heavy cover when resting and foraging and used open areas more when patrolling territory while coyotes rested in the open and selected for cover when hunting or patrolling. Further, we found evidence of temporal partitioning of behaviors both within and across species. Our study provides a novel approach to examining coexistence and identifies behaviorally mediated spatial and temporal differences in habitat use that may facilitate coexistence between ocelots, bobcats and coyotes.

Identification of buildings from remotely sensed imagery in urban and suburban areas is a challenging task. Light detection and Ranging (LiDAR) provides an opportunity to accurately identify buildings by identification of planar surfaces. Dense vegetation can limit the number of light particles that reach the ground, potentially creating false planar surfaces within a vegetation stand. We present an application of discriminant analysis (a commonly used statistical tool in decision theory) to classify polygons (derived from LiDAR) as either buildings or a non-building planar surfaces. We conducted our analysis in southern Texas where thornscrub vegetation often prevents a LiDAR beam from fully penetrating the vegetation canopy in and around residential areas. Using discriminant analysis, we grouped potential building polygons into building and non-building classes using the point densities of ground, unclassified, and building points. Our technique was 95% accurate at distinguishing buildings from non-buildings. Therefore, we recommend its use in any locale where distinguishing buildings from surrounding vegetation may be affected by the proximity of dense vegetation to buildings.

Habitat selection by animals is a complex, dynamic process that can vary across spatial and temporal scales. Understanding habitat selection is a vital component of managing endangered species. Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis), a medium-sized endangered felid, overlap in their northern range with bobcats (Lynx rufus) and coyotes (Canis latrans), with all three species sharing similar space and resource use. As the potential for competition between these three carnivores is high, understanding differences in habitat use and the effect of these potential competitors on habitat selection of ocelots is essential to conservation. Our objective was to compare habitat selection between species and examine if ocelots avoided areas used by competitors at broad and fine scales. We captured and collared 8 ocelots, 13 bobcats, and 5 coyotes on the East Foundation's El Sauz Ranch and the Yturria San Francisco Ranch in South Texas, USA from 2017 to 2021. We compared 2nd (position of home range) and 3rd (use within the home range) order selection across species and examined whether ocelots avoided areas categorized as high probability of use by bobcats and coyotes across both orders of selection. We found a preference for heterogeneous landscapes by bobcats and coyotes while ocelots were strongly tied to woody cover across both orders. At the 2nd order, ocelots selected areas with higher probability of use by bobcats and showed no response to higher probability of use by coyotes, suggesting ocelots did not avoid either species. However, at the 3rd order, ocelots avoided areas used by coyotes. Ocelots selected for areas of use by bobcats at the 2nd order and 3rd order. Results suggest that at the broader scale, placement of the home range is not affected by the presence of sympatric carnivores, however, at a finer scale, ocelots are avoiding coyotes but not bobcats. Our study emphasizes the importance of woody and herbaceous cover at the broad scale and dense vegetation at the finer scale to sustain ocelots. In addition, we show differing patterns of interspecific avoidance by ocelots across species and scales.

Various landscape and environmental factors influence animal movement and habitat selection. Lunar illumination affects nocturnal visual perception of many species and, consequently, may influence animal activity and habitat selection. However, the effects of varying moon stage may differ across taxa. Prey species often reduce activity during highly visible periods of night while predators may increase activity or alter their habitat use. Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) and bobcats (Lynx rufus), two nocturnal predatory felids that coexist in southern Texas, may also alter their behavior in response to the phase of the moon. To evaluate the effects of lunar phase on habitat selection of ocelots and bobcats, we executed a step selection analysis using high-frequency GPS-telemetry data collected on each species (ocelot, N = 8; bobcat, N = 13) in southern Texas during 2017-2021 and compared step length during new versus full moons. We predicted that ocelots would increase use of dense thornshrub to reduce their visibility during a full moon. However, as bobcats are habitat generalists and are more active during crepuscular periods, we predicted less influence of moon phase on activity. Ocelots did not alter habitat selection in response to lunar phase but moved shorter distances during full moon phases. Conversely, bobcats selected for greater vegetation cover during full moons, possibly to facilitate hunting during brighter periods, but exhibited no difference in movement across lunar phase. We provide, to our knowledge, the first example of habitat selection by predators in relation to lunar phase and show differences across new versus full moons by ocelots and bobcats such that ocelots alter step length but not habitat selection while bobcats altered habitat selection but not step length in response to shifting lunar phase. Further, we suggest the high potential for ocelot-vehicle collisions on darker nights due to increased movement by ocelots and poor visibility for drivers.