This study presents a numerical investigation of the hydrodynamic characteristics of core-annular flow of water and non-Newtonian crude oil in a pipeline equipped with a ball valve. The main objective is to evaluate the effects of ball valve opening (25–85%), pipe orientation (horizontal and vertical), and inlet water volume fraction on phase distribution, total pressure drop, and flow stability. Simulations were performed using the Volume of Fluid (VOF) method to track the water-oil interface, along with the k-ω SST turbulence model to predict the turbulent behavior of the water phase. A waxy crude oil with a shear-rate-dependent rheological model was considered as a representative non-Newtonian heavy oil. The results indicate that the ball valve disrupts the core-annular structure downstream, where stratified flow and oil dispersed in water were observed at high and low valve openings, respectively. Flow passage through the valve led to a reduction in the effective viscosity of the mixture; specifically, at 25% valve opening, the maximum viscosity inside the valve was 74% lower than that upstream. At high openings (≥70%), upward vertical flow preserved the annular structure and reduced the total pressure drop. For the 85% opening, increasing the inlet water volume fraction stabilized the water layer by overcoming buoyancy forces, and an optimal range of 0.71–0.73 was identified. Higher values increased shear stress and reduced oil transport efficiency. At low openings (≤55%), vertical flow orientation and increasing inlet water volume fraction had no significant effect on maintaining the downstream annular structure.

Rising CO₂ levels and global food demand have increased interest in controlled environment agriculture, where light and CO₂ can be precisely managed. This study examined how CO₂ concentrations of 800, 1000, and 1200 ppm, combined with three daily light integrals (11.5, 14.4 and 17.3 mol·m⁻²·d⁻¹), affect biomass in six leafy vegetables grown in a smart vertical greenhouse. Data from the lowest DLI level (11.5 mol·m⁻²·d⁻¹) were excluded from subsequent analysis because plants showed minimal biomass accumulation. Fresh weight data, modeled with the Gompertz function, showed that increasing CO₂ to 1000 ppm improved growth across all crops. Further gains at 1200 ppm occurred only under higher light, especially for Radish, Basil, and Parsley. Parsley’s biomass rose 25 percent at 1200 ppm under high light intensity, while Mint and Leek showed little change beyond 1000 ppm. These results indicate that the CO₂ level associated with the highest fresh weight depends on both crop type and light intensity. In the tested EDG conditions, 1000 ppm was generally sufficient under moderate light, whereas several crops showed additional gains at 1200 ppm under higher light. Overall, the findings support CO₂ setpoints that are crop- and light-specific within the investigated range.

This study presents a techno-economic evaluation of a previously developed RSOC-based system that simultaneously produces electricity and freshwater. The system integrates a reversible solid oxide cell (RSOC), an organic Rankine cycle, and a zero-liquid-discharge desalination unit. Building on earlier thermodynamic and exergy assessments, this work investigates the system's financial viability by estimating investment costs and analyzing levelized product costs and key profitability indicators. Four operational scenarios were examined, differing in energy sourcing (solar, grid electricity, and methane), hydrogen utilization (storage or sale), and RSOC control strategy. Among them, Scenario 4, which applies high-rate electrolysis using both solar and grid electricity, sells the produced hydrogen, and relies on methane for night-time fuel cell operation, delivered the most favorable economic performance. It achieved the lowest levelized cost of electricity (0.04 $.kW-1.h-1), highest hydrogen production, shortest payback period, and an NPV of 93.4 million dollars. In contrast, Scenario 1, operating entirely on solar energy and storing hydrogen for internal use, offered the lowest freshwater cost (9.58 $.m-3) but was the least attractive economically. Investment analysis revealed that photovoltaic panels and the RSOC dominate capital expenditure. A sensitivity analysis demonstrated that hydrogen price and interest rate exert the strongest influence on economic performance.

Freshwater scarcity has intensified the need for compact, low-power, and decentralized atmospheric water harvesting (AWH) technologies. In this study, a portable thermoelectric atmospheric water generator (AWG) equipped with conical aluminum condensers is experimentally investigated to evaluate geometry-driven performance enhancement under constant electrical input. The system was tested under controlled variations of relative humidity (66-93%), inlet-air temperature (24-32 degrees C), airflow velocity (0.69-1.08 m/s), and condenser height (10 and 15 cm). Under the most favorable condition (93% RH, 32 degrees C, 1.08 m/s), the system achieved a maximum water production of 19 mL/h and 16 mL/h using the 15-cm and 10-cm condenser, respectively. Increasing airflow velocity improved water yield by 50-70%, while condenser height optimization enhanced performance by 20-30%, without increasing electrical power input. The total measured power consumption was approximately 50.6 W, corresponding to 1.215 kWh/day, resulting in a specific water yield of 0.375 L/kWh and an apparent coefficient of performance (COP) of similar to 0.25. Unlike many TEC-based AWG systems that rely on increased power input or additional modules to improve output, this study demonstrates that measurable performance gains can be achieved through thermofluidic and geometric optimization under strict energy constraints. The findings provide quantitative benchmarking data and advance TEC-based atmospheric water harvesting research by highlighting energy-constrained design strategies for low-power, off-grid, and renewable-supported applications.

Applying printed circuit heat exchangers (PCHEs) in small-scale natural gas liquefaction refineries can be a practical innovation for the expansion of such liquefaction units in industrial zones as well as areas far from the national natural gas network. After an overview of the state of the art related to the small-scale LNG refineries, the lack of applying PCHEs was observed. The gravitational and centrifugal buoyancy for a horizontal C-shaped channel of a PCHE have been studied numerically. OpenFOAM (version v1606+) software was used to model the cooling process. The most common component of natural gas is methane, so methane has been considered as the heat transfer fluid in this study. The dome-shaped distribution of the Grashof number reveals that mixed convection heat transfer becomes more active around the pseudo-critical point. Greater flattening of the C-shaped zigzags can cause an average increase of 49% for the centrifugal Grashof number in the supercritical process and a 30.9% increase for the gravitational Grashof number in the trans-critical process. As the zigzags become sharper, an increase of 29.12% in the Nusselt number for the supercritical process and 30.81% for the trans-critical process will be reached and the total entropy generation experiences a decrease of about 41.37% for the supercritical process and 32.03% for the trans-critical process. The proximity of the synergy number to one radian indicates that geometrical changes in the channel enhance heat transfer. The results can help to improve and develop the design of PCHEs for natural gas liquefaction process in small-scale refineries.

Given the reduced efficiency of the Heller tower under adverse weather conditions, the solar chimney integrated with Forgo radiators offers an innovative alternative to the traditional Heller tower. This system, which utilizes solar radiation, not only generates electricity but also cools the hot water exiting the power plant's condenser. The present research demonstrates how the combined solar chimney system can not only outperform the Heller tower but also deliver superior energy and exergy efficiencies along with environmental benefits. Thermo, exergoeconomic, and environmental analyses were conducted using Engineering Equation Solver (EES) software, considering various wind speeds and turbine pressure drops. Results show that heat dissipation from the radiators increased by -3.47 %, +23.13 %, and +29.43 % at wind speeds of 5, 10, and 15 m/s, respectively, indicating enhanced cooling performance at higher wind speeds. Correspondingly, exergy destruction in the solar chimney with radiators increased by 0.0198 %, 7.17 %, and 16.7 %, respectively. The solar chimney system achieved improved energy and exergy efficiencies and reduced CO₂ emissions compared to the conventional Heller tower. Energy efficiency changed by -0.96 %, +6.28 %, and +11.24 %, while exergy efficiency changed by -0.97 %, +6.28 %, and +0.26 %, respectively. The cost rate of exergy destruction decreased by 0.049 % at 5 m/s and increased by 1.94 % and 1.90 % at 10 and 15 m/s. Meanwhile, the normalized CO₂ emissions decreased by 0.88 %, 2.82 %, 12.26 %, and 18.67 % across all wind speeds, indicating a significant environmental improvement compared to the conventional Heller tower.

Printed circuit heat exchangers (PCHEs) using nitrogen as a renewable coolant are a progressive candidate in small-scale natural gas liquefaction refineries. In response to the increasing global focus on LNG production due to the global warming challenges, this study provides a 3E analysis of the effect of longitudinal fins on the cooling process of methane at supercritical pressures. An economic evaluation based on the second law of thermodynamics applies to a counter-flow PCHE. Parameters such as Nusselt number, Richardson number, PCHE effectiveness, performance evaluation criterion, rational efficiency, and thermodynamic-economic cost are analyzed. The capital cost and the irreversibility penalty cost make the total cost of the PCHE. The results predict that the irreversibility cost can be 20 times the capital cost. The comparative results reveal that by sinusoidalizing and applying one longitudinal rectangular fin, the PCHE effectiveness increases by 6.34 %, the total entropy generation decreases by 9.1 %, the methane outlet temperature decreases by 7.57 %, the rational efficiency rises by 2.68 %, and 9.77 % reduction in thermodynamic-economic cost are obtained compared to the fin-less straight channel. This study proposes new Nusselt number correlations for methane at supercritical pressures. This study can expand the feasibility of small-scale natural gas liquefaction units to use this clean fossil fuel.

This paper investigates the use of Reversible Solid Oxide Cells (RSOCs) as a connection between electricity and gas networks. The system integrates an RSOC with a catalytic reactor for methane production via electrolysis and power generation in fuel cell mode. A 0-D computational model developed in Matlab, assesses its performance. In electrolysis mode, excess electricity is stored as hydrogen, which is then converted to methane for injection into gas infrastructure. In fuel cell mode, RSOC generates zero-emission electricity from methane or methane-hydrogen mixtures, as hydrogen is increasingly blended into natural gas grids. System’s performance improves with higher hydrogen content, yielding 1.3–1.8 times more power and 11.8 % greater stack efficiency compared to pure methane. Fuel utilization, operating temperature, and steam-to-carbon ratio also impact performance. The roundtrip efficiency of the RSOC decreases with rising current density, dropping from 70.9 % to 28.6 %, with the overall system's roundtrip efficiency peaking at 0.14 A/cm².

Steam turbines play a crucial role in electricity production, and any enhancement in their performance can significantly reduce energy losses. During operation, steam expands in the low-pressure sections of the turbine where supercooling, can lead to non-equilibrium condensation (NQC), transforming the flow into a two-phase state. This NQC, an irreversible phase change, results in the formation of liquid droplets, which reduce efficiency, cause blade wear, and lead to mechanical damage. This study proposes the use of a saturated steam injection technique to mitigate the detrimental effects of the liquid phase on steam turbine blades. Given the high energy content of hot steam, saturated steam is selected for injection. Initially the effects of this technique on parameters such as pressure, temperature, and Mach number are examined. Subsequently, its impact on nucleation, droplet radius, liquid mass fraction (LMF), turbine stage efficiency (TSE), and condensation losses is analyzed. The results show that the saturated steam injection technique effectively reduces the liquid phase in the flow. However, it also reduces the TSE due to flow disturbance. Optimization of saturated steam injection parameters reveals that injecting steam at specific conditions (location 3, saturation pressure 140 kPa, injection slot width 0.09, inlet length and angle 90 degrees) results in a reduction in, LMF, condensing losses and vane inlet flow by (22.82 %, 23.69 % and 1.5 %, respectively).

With concerns on the increasing greenhouse gas emissions, CO2 capture is the extensive interests in the world. One possible approach to mitigate this issue is to capture CO2 from flue gas from combustion power plants to reuse it such as injecting CO2 into the environment of greenhouse nurseries to enhance plant yield. Biogas burning power plants and biomass gasification power plants are promising technologies for energy production from biomass. In both technologies, the applicability of coupled carbon capture and utilisation technology to the plant was considered and the captured CO2 was utilised in a greenhouse to increase its production rate. This work studies the simultaneous production of electricity and heat performance with the specific input of 10 tons of MSW per day as fuel. The results showed that the electrical power production rate of syngas-based CHP system biogas-based CHP system are 85 kW and 106.3 kW.

Using natural gas (NG), as a low-carbon energy source, has been highly prevalent in order to address the growing energy demand, leading to its increased global consumption. NG is commonly transported through pipeline, where high-pressure gas is transferred to the desired location through pipes and subsequently reduced at pressure reduction station (PRS) so as to reach the proper distribution pressure. The conventional form of this process leads to energy loss. To tackle this issue, NG liquefaction methods, particularly self-cooling, are widely used due to their low power consumption, simplicity, low investment costs, and the ability to recover wasted energy. In the present study, an innovative bifunctional process has been developed to liquefy natural gas and reduce the pipeline pressure with zero or near-zero power consumption. Two schemes were devised based on the storage method. These include the Low-pressure Liquefaction Pressure Reduction System (L-LPRS) for storage in atmospheric flat-bottom tanks, and the High-pressure Liquefaction Pressure Reduction System (H-LPRS) for storage in high-pressure vacuum bullet tanks. Comparing these configurations with similar studies, it shows notable improvement in performance criteria. Thanks to the configuration of this cycle, the energy consumption for the liquification process was brought to zero. This is while the feed pressure is 50 bar, which is a common number for many PRSs, and the designed equipment are conventional, making it feasible to implement the findings of this study. The results indicated that the liquefaction rate (LR) reached 25.03 % in the L-LPRS and 28.3 % in the H-LPRS. At the maximum LR condition, the specific power consumption and exergy efficiency for the L-LPRS were 14.75 kWh/ton LNG and 63.3 %, respectively. The exergy efficiency of the H-LPRS was 63.9 %, with no significant power consumption required. Thus, H-LPRS achieved a higher liquefaction rate without compromising exergy efficiency or consuming excess power. According to the obtained results, replacing conventional systems with LPRS might recover 60 % of the exergy typically wasted in PRS.

In different industries, waste heat recovery is considered an efficient approach of maximizing energy utilization. This study addresses the recovery of waste flows from the blowdown tanks (BTs) and deaerators of a Combined Cycle Power Plant (CCPP). To this end, three waste heat recovery scenarios were proposed using the organic Rankine cycle (ORC) and the distributed boosted multi-effect distillation (DBMED) integrated with the CCPP: Scenario 1 (ORC-DBMED), Scenario 2 (ORC-D-DBMED), and Scenario 3 (ORC P-DBMED). The proposed scenarios were evaluated through the energy, exergy, and economic (3E) analysis and were then optimized from an economic perspective. The main exergy destruction occurred in the combustion chamber of the CCPP, the evaporator of the ORC, and the condenser of the DBMED, accounting for 55.4 %, 52 %, and 29.9 %, respectively. According to the results, Scenario 1 demonstrated the shortest payback period (PP) of 1.62 years, while Scenario 2 achieved a slightly higher energy efficiency of 46.7 %. However, the payback period for Scenario 2 was longer, at 2.34 years. Scenario 1, which exhibits superior economic conditions compared to other scenarios, was proposed in this study. In this cycle, 730.1 kW of power and 278.56 m3/day of water were saved by recovering the flows of vents and producing water in the DBMED process. The integration of the cycle led to a 0.21 % rise in the energy efficiency and 0.13% increase in exergy efficiency for the CCPP.

Considering the reduction in the efficiency of the Heller tower under the influence of ambient temperature during hot seasons and the effect of wind, much past research has modeled the hybrid Heller-solar chimney system using CFD techniques under various climatic conditions. However, no study has been conducted on the feasibility of replacing the solar chimney with the Heller tower in a fossil fuel power plant. The integration of Forgo heat exchangers with a solar chimney is a novel approach that has not been explored before, further highlighting the uniqueness of this study. By addressing this gap, the study not only proposes a solution to improve the cooling efficiency of fossil fuel power plants but also contributes to reducing reliance on fossil fuels, promoting a cleaner environment. In this study, the use of solar energy is proposed as a suitable solution to reduce the use of fossil and nuclear fuels to achieve a cleaner environment. In the proposed model, a solar chimney equipped with Forgo heat exchangers replaces the Heller tower in a fossil fuel power plant, is provided to improve the cooling system performance of the power plant and ultimately increase the overall cycle efficiency. Heat loss from the integrated solar chimney for crosswind velocities of 5, 10, and 15 m/s decreased by 3.47 % while increasing by 23.13 % and 29.43 %, respectively. Heat dissipated from the integrated solar chimney by increasing the chimney radius from 10 to 15 m at 60 Pa pressure drop for crosswind velocities of 5, 10, 15 m/s decreased by 0.7 %, and increased by 23.8 %, 29.65 %, respectively. Consequently, the output power of the chimney decreased by 18.812 % at a wind speed of 5,10 m/s, 16.87 %, and increased by 5.67 % at a wind speed of 15 m/s.

Monitoring and dissipating the heat generated by semiconductor-based components, including microprocessors, is necessary for their stability and optimal performance. The use of heat pipes (HPs) as passive instruments makes this possible without the need for any additional energy sources. The application of flat plate nano-HPs in microprocessors has materialized by recent developments in nanoscale device manufacturing. The effectiveness of a cell of this kind of HP has been investigated in this article. While focusing on the impact of wall thickness, the velocity, density, and temperature profiles, and also mass and heat transmission have been calculated under various circumstances. The molecular dynamics simulation findings indicated that the mass transfer rate has increased as the wall layer numbers have increased, under all circumstances. The atomic structure of the working fluid has a significant impact on the mass transfer rate inside nano-HPs. The maximum and minimum heat fluxes are 1896 W/cm2 and 1392 W/cm2, which respectively relate to water and argon. The overall performance of HP significantly relates to the circulation rate of the working fluid. Using Cu-EtOH leads to the maximum mean velocity (0.096 & Aring;/ps). Cu-EtOH and Pt-Ar respectively, shows the highest and lowest average temperatures, as 463.1 K and 404.7 K.

This study addresses the inefficiencies and environmental burdens of conventional urban greenhouses by experimentally evaluating a building integrated solar-powered vertical greenhouse system designed for sustainable food production. A stepwise methodology is employed, in which energy audits defined system demands, followed by real-time measurements and performance simulations of photovoltaic energy integration. Three configurations were assessed including a conventional greenhouse, a smart greenhouse powered entirely by the grid electricity, and a smart greenhouse supplied by an integrated solar energy system with grid backup. The solar-powered system achieved 86 percent annual energy self-sufficiency, supplying 20,591 kWh of electricity and requiring minimal grid support. Additionally, real-world data were used to validate a modified simulation model accounting for environmental factors such as dust accumulation and aging, achieving a performance ratio of 82.6 percent. Economically, the system demonstrated a payback period of three years and a 17 percent internal rate of return, while environmentally it reduced annual carbon dioxide emissions by 4843 kg. Additionally, the closed-loop system achieved up to 90 percent water savings. This research contributes an experimentally validated, resource-efficient model for integrating solar energy with vertical food production systems tailored to urban sustainability goals.

One of the significant challenges in cementing operations is the ability to predict the rheological behavior of wellbore cement under bottom-hole conditions. Therefore, developing advanced fluid mechanics models is necessary to predict the rheological behavior of wellbore cement. This study focused on wellbore cement compositions in southern Iran’s exploratory oilfields, considering time, temperature, pressure, and cement stability during drilling and production operations. The proper exploratory and development oil wells’ cement formulation of the area shall be prepared according to the geological characteristics and static and circulation temperature at the beginning and end of the formation. It requires conducting various tests, such as compressive strength, free water, and thickening time, in the studied formations. Optimal compaction should be produced according to the amount of allowed slurry and comparing the data obtained from the tests. The values obtained from different formations were compared with those obtained from Bingham’s plastic and power fluids theories, and the very low deviation of the shear stress calculated at different radii of the rotary viscometer was compared. It was concluded that Bingham’s plastic model is the appropriate rheological model that describes the slurry’s rheological properties, such as plastic viscosity, shear stress, shear rate, and density. The novelty aspects of this work include a rheology modeling error range of 0.11 to 0.95

Floating photovoltaic solar systems offer numerous advantages, including reduced land usage, diminished water evaporation, and lowered thermal losses compared to terrestrial installations. If widely adopted, this system has the potential to generate a staggering 10,600 TWh of electricity. The widespread implementation of this technology could curtail water evaporation by approximately 30%. Floating solar power plants operate at temperatures about 20°C cooler than their terrestrial counterparts, enabling floating panels to yield up to 33.3% more energy. Furthermore, floating photovoltaic systems exhibit an 18.18% greater efficacy in curbing greenhouse gas emissions compared to their land-based counterparts. The heightened adoption of this system is driven by diverse factors, including escalating energy demand, ecological concerns, land-use constraints, and water scarcity, all contributing to sustainability. Despite the manifold benefits of these systems, there exist drawbacks associated with this technology, such as heightened panel corrosion, challenges in cleaning, and potential adverse environmental impacts that need to be addressed. This study meticulously examines the merits and challenges of floating photovoltaic systems in comparison to land-based installations through the content analysis method, meticulously categorizing pertinent research within the existing literature. Tailored approaches to cooling and cleaning, suited to the distinct installation conditions and environments of these systems, are concisely outlined. Through a comprehensive literature review and a meticulous comparison of cooling methods, it has been ascertained that the application of such strategies for floating solar plants yields an efficiency increase of 5-7% in the short term. Consequently, this study furnishes an initial guide for researchers and designers engaged in the development of both floating and land-based solar photovoltaic systems.

This paper proposes and investigates an integrated system, centered around a reversible solid oxide fuel cell to meet power and fresh water demand of a small town. The proposed system is simulated in MATLAB and validated with experimental data. Subsystems including solar field, reversible solid oxide fuel cell, organic Rankine cycle coupled with ejector cooling, and zero discharge multi effect desalination system are modeled and analyzed in design condition. The electrical and thermal efficiencies of photovoltaic thermal system are calculated as 9.82 % and 53.27 %, respectively, while photovoltaic cell's efficiency is 9.69 %. The organic Rankine cycle generates 451.5 kW and 1.31 MW for cooling and heating loads, respectively, with a net power of 450 kW. Freshwater production of desalination unit transpires at a rate of 9.6 kg/s in the effects, supplemented by an additional 13.5 kg/s in the spray evaporation tank, resulting in a calculated gain output ratio of 12.06 for the proposed system. The entire system has been examined during day and night throughout a year (taking one day for each month) with the assumption of system stability at every hour. Reversible solid oxide stacks switch between electrolyzer and fuel cell modes hourly, corresponding to hydrogen production or consumption across months. Monthly hydrogen dynamics are determined, showing peak production in June, minimal production in March, and negative values in January, February, November, and December. The total net hydrogen production over the entire year amounts to 22679 kg. The electrolyzer exhibits the highest power consumption, followed by the desalination cycle's electric heater, Reversible solid oxide cell's electric heater and evaporator. Peak power production during daylight is from the photovoltaic system linked to solar irradiance, while fuel cells maintain a consistent 5 MW generation during night. In fuel cell mode, the system attains 27.5 % overall efficiency in cold months and 25.8 % in warm months, while operating as an electrolyzer results in an overall efficiency ranging from 3.7 % to 4.1 %. The calculated annual average overall efficiency is 17.29 %.

In the present research, a numerical and analytical study on magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) convective flow of Jeffrey nanofluid has been presented. Investigation of mass and heat transfer phenomena has been done using mathematical modeling and considering thermal radiation. Solving and developing non-linear differential equations is done using finite element method (FEM) and Akbari-Ganji method (AGM). The novelty of this research lies in its application of these methods to investigate the effects of varying physical parameters on Jeffrey nanofluid flow, thereby filling a significant gap in the field of magnetohydrodynamics (MHD). Non-linear equations for energy, momentum and concentration are converted into dimensionless nonlinear equations by using appropriate variables. The main goal of this study is to determine the effect of various physical parameters on velocity, temperature and fluid concentration with the finite element model. This particular model was chosen because of the important role of magnetohydrodynamics and its wide applications in industry, engineering and medicine. The obtained results are presented graphically. It can be seen that with the increase of the mixed convection parameter, the velocity field increases, but the temperature and concentration decrease. Increasing the Hartmann number increases the speed and decreases the temperature in a certain range. When the Prandtl number increases, the temperature decreases. An increase in the Schmidt number results in a decrease in concentration. The results of the present study are in good agreement with the previous results, which shows the high accuracy and efficiency of the techniques used in this study.

In the present work, direct contact the refrigerant and the cells was employed for thermal management. This study experimentally investigates cooling the battery pack by allowing the refrigerant to directly contact the cells. Furthermore, it presents the first experimental evaluation of combining this approach with various active and passive cooling methods. According to the results, the cells’ maximum temperature decreased by 34°C at the end of the discharge. In the proposed system, the heatsink served as the only heat transfer path to the environment, where. heat transfer occurred via free convection. To enhance heat dissipation from the heatsink, the system was combined with active or passive Battery Thermal Management Systems (BTMSs). Using hydrogel between the fins of the heatsink decreased the cells’ maximum temperature by 0.5°C. However, the use of forced airflow between the fins of the heatsink did not affect the cells’ maximum temperature. The proposed system was also combined with an active forced liquid cooling system, and various water flow rates were investigated. At a flow rate of 200 LPH, the cells’ maximum temperature was reduced by 1.5°C compared to the mode without forced water flow. Additionally, different inlet water temperatures were examined, revealing that increasing the inlet water temperature leads to a significant rise in the cells' maximum temperature.