Mountain tapirs (Tapirus pinchaque) are endangered land mammals and there are few descriptions of urinary diseases that affect them. This report describes a 17-year-old mountain tapir presenting with hyporexia and chronic weight loss caused by unilateral nephrolithiasis and hydronephrosis. Unilateral nephrectomy returned this mountain tapir to normal weight with resolution of clinical signs. Characteristics of the smooth circular uroliths found in this mountain tapir were consistent with the rarer type II variant found in horses and was composed of 100% calcium carbonate. Type II uroliths in horses typically have amorphous shapes and include phosphate. This case showed that mountain tapirs are susceptible to nephrolithiasis, which may progress to hydronephrosis, and that unilateral nephrectomy is a feasible treatment. Despite the success of nephrectomy in this case, further investigation is required in captive mountain tapirs to more clearly understand management of nephrolithiasis and how it equates with what is known in horses.

Growing resistance to current antiparasitic medications, both in livestock and in zoological species under human care, makes it imperative to evaluate available drugs on the market, such as eprinomectin. In this prospective study, five males and one female of reticulated (Giraffa reticulata; n = 2), Masai (Giraffa tippelskirchii; n = 1), Nubian (Giraffa camelopardalis; n = 2), and hybrid subspecies (n = 1) of giraffe, received 1.5 mg/kg eprinomectin topically along the dorsum. Using high-performance liquid chromatography, concentrations of eprinomectin in plasma samples collected at 0, 4, 24, and 48 h, and 7, 14, 21, and 28 d were evaluated following drug administration. Complete blood cell counts and biochemistry panels were performed before (n = 6) and after (n = 3) eprinomectin administration. Samples for modified double centrifugal fecal flotation (n = 6) were evaluated prior to eprinomectin administration to evaluate for endoparasites and were repeated after the study (n = 5). Noncompartmental pharmacokinetic analysis was applied to the data. The observed maximum plasma concentration was 11.45 ng/ml and the time of observed maximum concentration was 2.67 d. The mean terminal half-life was 5.16 d. No adverse effects were observed related to eprinomectin administration and no blood work changes were observed. Parasite loads decreased (n = 3) or did not change (n = 2) after eprinomectin administration. The mean peak plasma concentration of eprinomectin in giraffe was similar to that achieved in cattle, despite using three times the dose.

Blood gas analyses have previously been performed for giraffe under anesthesia and with physical restraint in a chute; however, reference values for giraffe that are trained to participate in venipuncture without chemical or physical restraint have not previously been described. Using a point-of-care blood gas and lactate analyzer and 20 giraffe trained for voluntary phlebotomy, values were determined for venous blood gasses and plasma lactate concentration. Ninety-five percent confidence in the mean values for venous pH (7.34-7.46), partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2; 28.5-37.8 mmHg), partial pressure of oxygen (PO2; 56-102 mmHg), bicarbonate (HCO3 -; 18.9-21.0 mmol/L), base excess (BE; -6.0 to -3.6 mmol/L), total carbon dioxide (TCO2; 19.9-22.0 mmol/L), and lactate (0.32-0.56 mmol/L) were calculated. This is the first report on venous blood gas analysis values for giraffe without chemical or physical restraint. These data will provide a reference for clinical interpretation of venous blood gas and lactate values in giraffe and demonstrate some of the potential diagnostic benefits to training giraffe and other zoo species for voluntary medical procedures.

Identifying common causes of mortality in zoo giraffe (Giraffa spp.) and okapi (Okapia johnstoni) provides an opportunity to help improve welfare and population management for these endangered species. Mortality reports from 1,024 giraffe and 95 okapi in zoos were compiled from the Species 360 Zoological Information Management Software (ZIMS) utilizing the Morbidity & Mortality Analysis tool. Thirty years of mortality reports (1991-2020) were evaluated to help identify trends and evaluate the impacts, if any, of changes over time in husbandry and management practices. The most common causes of death for giraffe from 1991 to 2015 were neonatal issues (234/845, 27.7%), trauma (213/845, 25.2%), noninfectious disease (190/845, 22.5%), and infectious disease (188/845, 22.2%). In comparison, the most common causes of mortality for giraffe from 2016 to 2020, were noninfectious disease (78/179, 43.6%), trauma (39/179, 21.8%), neonatal issues (39/179, 21.8%), and infectious disease (17/179, 9.5%). The most common cause of death for okapi from 1991 to 2015 were neonatal issues (29/64, 45.3%), infectious disease (13/64, 20.3%), noninfectious disease (11/64, 17.2%), and trauma (10/64, 15.6%). In comparison, the most common cause of death for okapi from 2016 to 2020 was noninfectious disease (15/31, 48.4%), neonatal issues (8/31, 25.8%), and infectious disease (5/31, 16.1%). The results suggest that zoo giraffids have had a relative decrease in mortality from infectious diseases in recent years, whereas death from noninfectious causes has increased significantly. Trauma-related giraffe mortalities and neonatal mortality in both giraffe and okapi, although decreasing in prevalence between time periods, continue to be important causes of death in zoos. This is the first descriptive mortality review for the Giraffidae family and provides data on potential giraffe and okapi health issues that zoos could proactively address.

Giraffe skin disease (GSD) is an emerging disease of free-ranging giraffe recognized in the last 25 years in several species, including the critically endangered Nubian giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis) of Uganda. Identifying the cause of GSD and understanding its impact on health were deemed paramount to supporting these vulnerable populations. Sixty-four giraffes were immobilized in Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda, from 2017 to 2019, and GSD lesions were opportunistically biopsied. Fifty-five giraffes (86%) had GSD lesions on the neck, axilla, chest, and cranial trunk. Lesions were categorized into early, intermediary, and dormant stages based on gross and histological characteristics. Early lesions were smaller, crusted nodules with eosinophilic and pyogranulomatous dermatitis and furunculosis. Intermediary lesions were thick plaques of proliferative and fissured hyperkeratosis and acanthosis with dense dermal granulation tissue and severe eosinophilic and granulomatous dermatitis. Lesions appeared to resolve to dormancy, with dormant lesions consisting of hairless plaques of hyperkeratosis with dermal scarring and residual inflammation. The periphery of early and intermediary lesions included follicular granulomas containing adult filarid nematodes, with myriad encysted microfilariae in the superficial dermis. Stage L3 larvae were common in early and intermediary lesions, and dormant lesions had remnant encysted microfilariae with no adult or stage L3 larvae. Nematodes were morphologically and genetically novel with close identity to Stephanofilaria spp. and Brugia malayi, which cause infectious filariasis. Identification of potential insect vectors, long-term monitoring of GSD lesions, and evaluating response to therapy is ongoing in the efforts to help conserve the Nubian giraffe.

Alfaxalone, a neuroactive steroid with anesthetic properties, is considered safe when used alone or in combination with other drugs for anesthesia at recommended species doses, and its use has been studied in numerous species. The objective of this study was to assess the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of IM alfaxalone in Indian peafowl (Pavo cristatus; hereafter peafowl). Eight female peafowl from one zoological institution were used. A control blood sample was obtained before administration of either 10 mg/kg (n = 4) or 20 mg/kg (n =4) alfaxalone. Blood was collected at 5, 10, 15, 30, and 60 min after alfaxalone injection, with monitoring of sedation score, heart rate, and respiratory rate at each time point. Four peahens receiving a 10 mg/ kg dose had subjectively smoother inductions and recoveries, although sedation level was generally scored as low, with no adverse reactions noted. They were considered fully recovered by the 60-min postinjection time point, although measurable alfaxalone plasma concentrations remained present. Four peahens receiving 20 mg/kg IM experienced adverse effects including seizure-like episodes and hypersensitivity to stimuli throughout the study. This dosing group experienced prolonged recoveries consistent with high plasma concentrations (>3,000 ng/ml). Based on these results, use of 20 mg/kg IM alfaxalone as the sole anesthetic agent is not recommended in this species. Further studies should determine whether alfaxalone in conjunction with other anesthetic or analgesic agents could provide better sedation and smoother induction and recovery for peafowl and to assess the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of alfaxalone in other avian species.

Foot health in zoo giraffe has been a topic of recent research, although little is known about the foot health of free-ranging giraffe. This study describes the foot shape and radiographic pathological changes in 27 young adult Nubian giraffe ( Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis ) from a translocation in Uganda (August 2017). Giraffe feet were observed to have a concave sole, the hoof wall was longest by the toe tip, and the weight-bearing surface of the foot was primarily along the periphery of the foot including hoof wall, parts of the heel, and the edge of the sole. Radiographs showed that pedal osteitis and sesamoid bone cysts were relatively uncommon (3/24 giraffe with osteitis, 1/24 giraffe with sesamoid cysts), and that no giraffe in the study had P3 joint osteoarthritis, P3 rotation, or P3 fractures. Radiographs consistently demonstrated a positive palmar/plantar angle with the sole of the hoof thicker at the heel than by the toe tip, with the non weight-bearing palmar/plantar angle measuring 1.6°- 4.3°. This is the first systematic review of foot shape and radiographs in free-ranging giraffe and demonstrates a low prevalence of foot pathologies. This study suggests qualitative differences in foot shape, foot health, radiographic anatomy, and foot pathologies when comparing free-ranging and zoo giraffe. Further research is needed to identify why these differences occur and whether husbandry modifications could help improve zoo giraffe foot health and prevent associated lameness.

Background: Ferret hyperadrenocorticism is the most common endocrine disease among domesticated ferrets. Current therapies include adrenalectomy and gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogs. Radiation therapy was used as an alternative noninvasive local therapy option. Case presentation: A 5-year-old male castrated ferret originally presented for pollakiuria. An abdominal ultrasound evaluation revealed an enlarged right adrenal gland with heterogenous parenchyma. Hypofractionated radiation therapy for treatment of the right adrenal mass was planned and performed using a small animal irradiator system. The prescribed radiation protocol was 30 Gray administered in 5 weekly fractions. The volume of the irradiated adrenal mass was serially quantified via the weekly cone beam CT. The adrenal mass volume decreased by 88% over the 10-month period. The ferret was euthanized 10 months postradiation therapy due to progressive co-morbidities, and the body was submitted for necropsy examination. No evidence of adrenal tissue or neoplastic tissue was found on histopathology of the irradiated right adrenal mass at the time of death. Evidence of systemic mycobacteriosis was discovered on necropsy. Conclusion and case relevance: Based on histopathologic evaluation, a complete response was achieved with hypofractionated radiation therapy of the right adrenal mass. Additional studies are needed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of this novel therapeutic approach.

In zoos, rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) are commonly maintained in groups and population control is necessary. Here we report on hydrometra prevalence in a group of rock hyraxes. Prevalence of hydrometra in this small group (4/8) far exceeds reproductive pathology prevalence previously reported for this species under managed care. Affected females were nulliparous, but had not been contracepted; instead they were maintained as a single-sex group. The first case presented as sudden death and three additional cases were diagnosed antemortem via ultrasound. Two of these underwent ovariohysterectomy to treat the severe hydrometra. The last case was a mild hydrometra and during follow-up exam was found to have spontaneously resolved. Detailed information regarding clinical presentation, diagnostics and surgical techniques are provided.

Glaucoma is a blinding, painful disease in mammals, including rabbits. This study aimed to determine effects on intraocular pressure (IOP) and iridocorneal angle (ICA) morphology of two antiglaucoma therapies, 0.005% latanoprost (latanoprost) and 0.125% demecarium bromide (demecarium) in companion rabbits. Twenty healthy rabbits of varying breeds and ages were used. All animals received a complete ophthalmic examination including rebound tonometry and gonioscopy, and ICA imaging using spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT), high-resolution ultrasound, and Scheimpflug imaging (Pentacam® HR). Angle opening distance (AOD) and angle recess area (ARA) were measured. Demecarium was applied to one eye and latanoprost to the contralateral eye. Each eye was re-evaluated 1 hour later with tonometry, imaging, and gonioscopy. Pre- and post-treatment groups were compared with a Wilcoxon signed-ranked test for IOP, ARA, AOD, and gonioscopy score. Estimates of treatment effects were performed to identify clinically significant differences of demecarium and latanoprost on ICA parameters. Latanoprost caused a significant increase in gonioscopy score, ARA, and AOD when measured via SD-OCT whereas demecarium caused a significant decrease in gonioscopy score, ARA, and AOD when measured via SD-OCT and Pentacam® HR. Demecarium significantly increased IOP whereas latanoprost had no effect on IOP. Based on the increased ICA parameters in normal companion rabbits, latanoprost can be considered as a glaucoma medication in rabbits. Demecarium increased IOP and decreased ICA parameters; therefore, its use in rabbits is not recommended.

Alfaxalone is a neurosteroid anesthetic agent that has been extensively used in both human and veterinary medicine for more than 50 yr. Previous studies involving avian species demonstrated various dose ranges and multiple routes of administration. The aim of this study was to evaluate the short-term sedative, cardiorespiratory, and thermoregulatory effects of an intramuscular injection of alfaxalone on budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus). A crossover study was performed with a sample size of 10 male budgerigars, previously determined to be healthy based on physical examination. Alfaxalone was administered intramuscularly at two doses: 15 and 20 mg/kg. The lower dose resulted in mild to moderate sedation for 29 ± 5 min, whereas the higher dose resulted in moderate to profound sedation for 29 ± 7 min. A statistically significant decrease in heart rate was observed 2 min after administration of alfaxalone at 15 mg/kg; however, this finding was noted to be transient. A statistically significant decrease in respiratory rate was observed at 6 and 10 min after injection in both groups. Cloacal temperature measurement with a digital thermometer and eye temperature calculated from thermographic images demonstrated a decrease in body temperature over time but was not found to be statistically significant. Intramuscular use of alfaxalone proved to provide short-term sedation in budgerigars, with statistically significant but clinically mild cardiorespiratory effects. Due to a significant decrease in body temperature, active warming is recommended when using alfaxalone in budgerigars.

OBJECTIVE To present the results of clinical, surgical, and histopathologic procedures and how these were compared with the initial presumptive clinical diagnosis in a corn snake (Pantherophis guttatus) presenting with subspectacular fluid opacity; and to improve upon currently established surgical enucleation techniques in the snake. ANIMAL STUDIED An 8-month-old corn snake was presented for enlarged globe OD. PROCEDURES The following diagnostics were performed: systemic and ophthalmic examinations, complete blood count, cytology and culture of subspectacular fluid, and histopathology of enucleated globe and spectacle. Enucleation was performed in a routine fashion with the addition of a porcine small intestinal submucosa bioscaffold graft (SISplus™; Avalon Medical, Stillwater, MN), sutured over the orbit. RESULTS Systemic examination revealed signs of maxillary stomatitis. Ophthalmic examination revealed semitransparent fluid in the subspectacular space. Complete blood count was unremarkable. Cytology of fluid obtained via subspectacular centesis was acellular, and culture grew Clostridium perfringens, which was consistent with the clinical suspicion of right maxillary stomatitis. Histopathology of the enucleated globe revealed spectaculitis, characterized by regional heterophilic inflammation, and no evidence of lymph dissection in the (peri)ocular tissues. The final diagnosis was a subspectacular abscess. Follow-up revealed that the SIS graft provided excellent healing and cosmesis of the surgical site. CONCLUSIONS While there are reports of lymphatic fluid dissection between skin layers during ecdysis, which can result in an opaque spectacle, the fluid opacity in this case was attributed to a subspectacular abscess secondary to an ascending oral infection. Addition of biological wound dressing may contribute to positive post-enucleation outcome in the snake.

The guinea pig model of tuberculosis is used extensively to assess the efficacy of novel tuberculosis vaccines. There are established parameters to determine vaccine efficacy in this model, but the science community currently lacks established biomarkers for early detection and monitoring of experimental disease in guinea pigs. To define a set of biomarkers that could be used as benchmarks for disease progression and early endpoint criteria, we assessed serum biochemical and hematology parameters in 2 groups of guinea pigs—one vaccinated with the attenuated Mycobacterium bovis vaccine strain (BCG) and one sham-vaccinated with saline—and then experimentally infected with a virulent strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis . After infection, WBC showed the strongest differences between saline-inoculated and vaccinated animals, with more subtle changes in other serum biochemical parameters, including ALT and ALP. Therefore, this study provides a starting point for evaluating the utility of blood values as possible early endpoint criteria in the guinea pig model of tuberculosis.

Front foot radiographs from 22 giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) at one zoo were analyzed to better understand causes of lameness in this giraffe population. The herd had a history of front hoof overgrowth and intermittent lameness. Radiographic findings included distal interphalangeal joint osteoarthritis (OA), distal phalangeal bone (P3) osteitis, P3 fractures, P3 rotation, and sesamoid bone cysts. OA of the distal interphalangeal joint occurred in at least one front foot of 73% (16/22 giraffe) of the herd, and all giraffe had OA by 7 yr of age. Pedal osteitis was present in at least one front foot in 86% (19/22) of the giraffe, starting in animals as young as 1 yr old. P3 fractures were present in 36% (8/22) of the herd. These fractures were near the site of the deep digital flexor attachment and were diagnosed in giraffe as young as 10 yr old. The presence of severe osteitis was associated with the presence of P3 fractures. This study is unique in that a large herd was trained to participate in voluntary front foot radiographs so multiple causes of foot disease could be diagnosed antemortem and without anesthesia. Although the underlying causes of these lesions are likely multifactorial and currently unknown to us, the high prevalence of foot disease in relatively young animals warrants further investigation across zoos. In this study, OA, osteitis, and P3 fractures were common radiographic findings among giraffe that were limping. Subsequent monitoring and management changes suggest that proactive management of foot health can decrease morbidity and mortality in zoo giraffe.

In the United States, ~1.4 million sporadic human Salmonella enterica infections occur annually, with an estimated 6% attributable to reptile exposure. Detection of Salmonella in reptiles can be challenging given the limitations among detection methods. We evaluated sampling and detection methods for S. enterica in a cross-sectional study of reptilian patients (n = 45) over the course of 13 mo. Two sampling methods (cloacal swabs, electrostatic cloth body-feet samples) and 3 detection methods (enriched culture, lateral flow immunoassay [LFI], real-time PCR) were compared using McNemar and Fisher exact tests. Results varied by species, sample type, and detection method. In total, 14 of 45 (33%) patients were positive by culture, 10 of 45 (22%), and/or 13 of 45 (29%) by rtPCR. Among rtPCR-positive results, cloacal swabs (12 of 45 [27%]) resulted in a higher detection than body-feet wipes (4 of 45 [9%]; p = 0.01). Among culture-positive results, shedding was most commonly detected after additional incubation at room temperature when testing cloacal swabs (9 of 45 [20%]). However, there was significant disagreement between sampling methods (cloacal vs. body-feet; p = 0.03). No samples were positive by LFI. In general, cloacal swabs yielded the highest test-positive rates, irrespective of testing method. Our study highlights the importance of using detection methods optimized for the sample being tested.

OBJECTIVE Iridocorneal angle (ICA) narrowing is a known risk factor for primary glaucoma in multiple species, but has not been described in companion rabbits. This study aimed to develop an ICA grading scheme for companion rabbits to enable early glaucoma predisposition diagnosis. ANIMALS STUDIED Twenty healthy rabbits of varying breeds and ages. PROCEDURES Rabbits received complete ophthalmic examinations, including gonioscopy, and imaging of the ICA using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT), Scheimpflug imaging (Pentacam® HR), and high-resolution ultrasound (HRUS). Angle opening distance (AOD) and angle recess area (ARA) of the ICA were measured and assessed for agreement using a Bland-Altman analysis. A five-stage gonioscopy grading scheme was created, and Spearman-rank test assessed for correlation between gonioscopy grades and ICA measurements. Differences among age and sex were analyzed with a nonparametric ANOVA and Wilcoxon rank-sum test, respectively. RESULTS Analysis revealed AOD medians of 0.28mm for SD-OCT [95% CI: 0.24-0.31], 0.20mm for Pentacam® HR [95% CI: 0.18-0.21], and 0.25mm for HRUS [95% CI: 0.22-0.28]. The median ARA was 0.14mm2 for SD-OCT [95% CI: 0.117-0.163], 0.09mm2 for Pentacam® HR [95% CI: 0.082-0.100], and 0.06mm2 for HRUS [95% CI: 0.046-0.054]. The association between gonioscopy grade and SD-OCT ARA was significant (P < 0.05), and there was a significant difference (P < 0.001) between imaging modalities for both ARA and AOD. CONCLUSIONS Gonioscopy grade correlated well with SD-OCT ARA. Therefore, SD-OCT is recommended as a noncontact method for evaluating companion rabbit ICA. Each imaging device should not be used interchangeably for ICA evaluation.

A 2-month-old intact female African pygmy hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris) presented with a 1-week history of vomiting. Radiographs and ultrasound were performed but were inconclusive. The vomiting was unsuccessfully treated with famotidine and progressed over the following few days. An abdominal exploratory was performed and biopsies were taken of the stomach and small intestine. Histopathology revealed an eosinophilic gastroenteritis. Fenbendazole was initiated to rule out parasitic infection. No improvement was made, and prednisolone treatment was started. A diet trial using a feline hypoallergenic food was started 1-month later to rule-out food sensitivity. Vomiting improved with ongoing prednisolone and diet therapy, but then soft stools developed. Dysbiosis was diagnosed with fecal cytology and improved with metronidazole treatment. There were 2 episodes of regurgitation and omeprazole was added to the treatment plan. The hedgehog presented 20 months postdiagnosis maintained with prednisolone, omeprazole, and psyllium supplementation with no relapse of vomiting.

The objective of this study was to establish the clinical pharmacokinetic profile of 4 different opioid drugs (buprenorphine, butorphanol, hydromorphone, and morphine) in the domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo). Twenty-four, approximately 1-year-old, male neutered purpose-bred domestic ferrets were used for this study. The ferrets were divided into 4 groups of 6, with a different opioid drug used for each group. A preopioid venous blood sample was obtained via cranial vena cava venipuncture. Following the initial blood collection, a single injection of opioid (hydromorphone 0.1mg/kg, buprenorphine 0.04mg/kg, butorphanol 0.3mg/kg, and morphine 1mg/kg) was given to each ferret, dependent on assigned drug group, intramuscularly (buprenorphine) or subcutaneously (hydromorphone, butorphanol, and morphine). Intramuscular injections were administered in the semimembranosis and semitendinosis muscles, whereas the subcutaneous injections were delivered in the intrascapular subcutaneous space. A venous blood sample was obtained at 5, 15, 30, 60, 120, 240, 360, 480, and 720minutes postinjection from the ferrets in the buprenorphine, butorphanol, and hydromorphone groups. Mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography was performed to obtain plasma concentrations of the administered drugs. The mean maximum concentration of buprenorphine was 6.96ng/mL, butorphanol was 48.6ng/mL, and hydromorphone was 17.3ng/mL. Maximum concentrations were achieved at a mean of 9minutes after administration for buprenorphine, 13.3minutes for butorphanol, and 8.33minutes for hydromorphone. The mean half-life of buprenorphine was 219.1minutes, butorphanol was 91.1minutes, and hydromorphone was 24.7minutes. Owing to severe complications arising within the morphine group, including hypersalivation and vomiting, the morphine study was discontinued prior to blood sample collection. Intramuscular injections of buprenorphine and subcutaneous injections of butorphanol or hydromorphone appeared to be well tolerated by all ferrets. The pharmacokinetics of buprenorphine, butorphanol, and hydromorphone of a single equipotent dose of each drug have been established through this research investigation and may be useful for further studies.

Single incision laparoscopic surgery (SILS) involves only a single 2-3cm incision in the ventral midline of the patient with entry of the port, particularly the foam SILS Port multiple access port. This type of minimally invasive surgery using only 1 port and a controlled Hasson approach provides decreased risk of iatrogenic abdominal viscera penetration. This SILS Port (Covidien, Medtronic, Minneapolis, MN) also allows easy transition of instruments, telescope, and bipolar electrocautery devices amongst the 3 built-in cannulae for ideal triangulation for each side of the patient. In these 3 cases, the body wall incision length was reduced as compared to an open technique, involved fewer incisions as compared to a multiple port access technique, and subjectively proposed less risk to the cecum with the foam port. The median surgery time was 50 minutes (45-55 minutes), and no intraoperative or immediate postoperative complications were encountered in this series. The purpose of this clinical technique article is to describe and illustrate the laparoscopic-assisted ovariohysterectomy procedure via SILS for the domestic rabbit.