This work extensively studied the vasculature of mice mammary fat pads (BALB/c and C57BL/6) with special reference to haematogenous drainage routes. Mammary fat pads were five pairs (first cervical, second and third thoracic, fourth abdominal and fifth inguinal), bilaterally symmetrical, extending laterally and continuously with the subcutaneous fascia. The superficial cervical artery and vein primarily accomplished the blood vasculature of the first mammary fat pad, while the lateral thoracic and external thoracic arteries and veins supplied the second and third mammary fat pads. The superficial cervical vein (found parallel to the superficial cervical artery) drained into the external jugular vein. The lateral thoracic artery and external thoracic artery branched almost at the same level as the axillary artery (branch of subclavian artery), the latter being more medial in position. However, in some specimens, the branching of both arteries appeared to be at the same level, and their origins were indistinguishable. The lateral thoracic vein that was parallel to the lateral thoracic artery drained to the axillary vein close to the drainage of the external thoracic vein. The lateral thoracic, superficial caudal epigastric, iliolumbar and external thoracic arteries and veins vascularized the fourth mammary fat pad and displayed anastomosis among themselves. The iliolumbar vein (found parallel to the iliolumbar artery) drained into the inferior vena cava. The superficial caudal epigastric vein (found parallel to the superficial caudal epigastric artery (SCaEA)) drained into the femoral vein. Unlike humans, the internal thoracic artery and vein did not participate in the vasculature of mammary fat pads. The SCaEA and vein supplied blood and drained the fifth mammary fat pad. The anatomical continuity of the fourth and fifth mammary fat pads provided common drainage for both mammary fat pads. The BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice strains studied did not differ in topography and size of mammary fat pads. The vascular supply and drainage of the mammary fat pads also did not differ in the strains studied. Only minor variations could be noted in the small veins draining into the lateral thoracic vein. Lateral tributaries seen in the terminal end of the lateral thoracic vein were absent in the C57BL/6 mice.

This study examined the histomorphology of sweat glands across various dog breeds, focusing on their structural characteristics and adaptations to environmental needs. Skin samples from 48 dogs representing indigenous and seven breeds (German Shepherd, Labrador Retriever, Dachshund, Beagle, Doberman Pinscher, German Spitz and Pug) were collected from the ventral abdominal region. Using standard histological techniques, histology and the size and distribution of sweat glands were analysed. The results revealed significant variations in gland size and number among different breeds. Breeds like the German Spitz, German Shepherd and Dachshund had the largest sweat gland diameters, suggesting a better capacity for thermoregulation. In contrast, the Pug, Doberman Pinscher and Labrador Retriever had fewer and smaller glands. Dachshund stood out for possessing both the highest number and large-sized glands, while German Spitz had fewer but larger glands, compensating for the lesser number. The types of sweat glands predominating in ventral abdominal regions in dogs were apocrine glands. It was concluded that significant differences existed in the number and size of the sweat glands among different breeds which play a key role in thermoregulation. Keywords: Sweat glands, dogs, breed comparison

Emx2 is expressed during the development of the urogenital system and its mRNA can be seen in the primordia that would eventually give rise to the kidney, gonads and genital tract at the earliest stages of differentiation.Emx2 is thought to be indispensable for the formation of both Mullerian and Wolffian ducts.The objective According to this study, Mullerian duct defects in crossbred dairy animals were not frequently caused by emx2 gene.

Meat samples from six regions viz., neck, wing, breast, back, thigh and drumstick were collected from a total of 72 ducks comprising of six males and females of each of Vigova broilers, Kuttanad ducklings and spent Kuttanad ducks. The samples were assessed by a trained panel of seven assessors for flavour, juiciness, ease of fragmentation, mouth coating, overall tenderness and overall acceptability on eight-point Hedonic scale. Intramuscular fat of meat from the six regions was also estimated using Soxhlet apparatus. The highest mean intramuscular fat was obtained in the neck muscle by the spent Kuttanad ducks females (p<0.01) and the lowest mean intramuscular fat content was obtained for Kuttanad ducklings females in the breast region (p<0.01). The mean flavour scores did not differ significantly between groups except in the thigh region. There was no significant difference observed in the juiciness and mouth coating score between groups and genders. The highest mean ease of fragmentation score was attained in the back region for broiler duck males. The overall tenderness score showed significant difference (p<0.05) in breast muscle and back muscles. The overall tenderness score was significantly higher in broiler ducks in the back region. Overall acceptability score was significantly highest in back muscle followed by breast muscle in broiler ducks compared to spent Kuttanad ducks and was comparable to Kuttanad ducklings.

Hoof disorders markedly reduce productivity and overall performance of ungulates, with lameness posing a significant challenge in the dairy sector. This study aimed to assess the dimensions of claws in crossbred heifers in Kerala and to establish essential foundational data in this domain. The study, involving six crossbred heifers, encompassed the measurement of parameters like toe length, toe height, toe angle, sole length, sole width, and heel height using a defined methodology. The mean toe length in the forelimb (6.16±0.03 cm) was significantly greater than that in the hindlimb (5.84±0.05 cm). Among the heifers, the highest toe height was recorded in the right lateral claw of the forelimb (5.40±0.03 cm), while the lowest was in the left medial claw of the hindlimb. The overall mean sole length of the forelimb (9.11±0.10 cm) was significantly greater than that of the hindlimb (8.67±0.10 cm). Preserving an ideal claw conformation in line with optimal dimensions is critical for averting claw-related challenges and promoting animal welfare, underscoring the importance of regular hoof maintenance.

Background: Rabbit farming provides a valuable additional source of income in the rural areas of the county. Skin is the largest organ in the body and the hair coat forms the first line of defense against the invading pathogenic organisms as well as the physical environment. So far, no detailed comparative study has been conducted on the skin of various breeds of rabbits. Hence, the present work was undertaken to compare the structure and distribution of hair follicles in different breeds of rabbits commonly reared in Kerala.Methods: The study was conducted on the skin of six breeds of rabbits namely, Soviet Chinchilla, New Zealand White, Grey Giant, White Giant, Angora and crossbred. In total, 36 animals were used for the study. From each animal, skin samples were collected from eight representative areas of the body viz., dorsal nasal region, pinna, dorsal neck, dorsal thorax, dorsal abdomen, ventral abdomen, perineal and carpal regions. Standard procedures were adopted for histological studies.Result: All the six breeds of rabbits showed compound hair follicles with primary and secondary follicles with associated sebaceous glands. Arrangement of hair follicles showed differences among the breeds. There was no difference in the histology of hair/hair follicle among the breeds. This work will form a basis for further breed specific research in the area of fur and leather industry and skin penetration studies.

The digital cushion in cattle, comprised of fat and connective tissues, plays a critical role in supporting hoof integrity and mitigating lameness. However, little is known about its proximate composition in different age groups and its association with claw horn disruption lesions (CHDL). In this study, digital cushions were collected from cattle at a slaughter facility and categorised into four groups, viz. heifers, cows of first to third parities, cows beyond third parity, and cows with CHDL. Proximate composition analysis revealed significant variations in moisture content, total ash, protein, fibre, and fat among these groups. Heifers exhibited the highest protein content, possibly attributed to the prevalence of elastic fibres. In contrast, cows in their first to third parities displayed the highest fat content, indicating fat deposition with maturity. Animals suffering from CHDL had the lowest moisture and fat content in their digital cushions. These findings can contribute to our understanding of digital cushion health and its potential role in preventing CHDL, enhancing the welfare of cattle, and maintaining their productivity.

Anatomical defects of the oviduct leading to infertility was studied using the genitalia of 100 dairy cows / heifers collected from Meat Technology Unit, Mannuthy with a known history of infertility.Among the study group, three animals showed unilateral tubal obstruction.The patency of the oviduct was assessed by perfusing of 0.9 per cent sodium chloride solution with 1 per cent methylene blue.After morphological examination, tissue samples were fixed in 10 per cent neutral buffered formalin.Standard procedures were adopted for histoarchitectural studies.The defects were classified as type IV with complete occlusion.Gross examination by dye infusion test revealed that the oviducts were blocked near utero-tubal junction.The obstructed region became enlarged, thickened and more readily palpable.More amount of adipose tissue was deposited surrounding the ovary and oviduct.Oviduct became thickened and

Hypoplasia of ovary is one of the major causes of infertility in dairy cattle, which is characterized by absence of oestrus cycle, affecting livestock productivity and economics to a great extent. This study was conducted on the female genitalia collected from 100 dairy cows/heifers from the Meat Technology Unit, Mannuthy which included six animals culled on account of factors other than infertility with normal genitalia (control group) and remaining animals with a known history of infertility. Two animals of 22 months and 24 months of age showed bilateral ovarian hypoplasia. The history revealed that the animals were healthy, but had not shown oestrus. Grossly ovaries of the first animal appeared as pink-coloured, small, wrinkled, flattened, elongated structures without any follicles or CL. Second animal showed inactive, small, flat, streak-like left ovary without any cyclical structures. But the right ovary showed a single large corpus haemorrhagicum on the caudal end. Then ovarian tissue was fixed in 2 percent gluteraldehyde in 0.1 M phosphate buffer at pH 7.3. Under scanning electron microscopy, the ovary exhibited an uneven surface with clefts and grooves. The surface cells lost their normal appearance without any microvilli. Large round smooth germ cells were also observed on the ovarian surface. In the oviduct, the mucosa was lined by nonciliated cells having rounded surface interspersed among shrunken cells. The epithelial cell surface was covered with bulbous processes. Ciliated cells were not observed in the present study. Ovarian abnormality is reported to be the main cause of altered morphology of the surface epithelial cells and change in the ultrastructure of oviductal mucosa.

The study was conducted on genitalia collected from 100 dairy cows/heifers from the Meat Technology Unit, Mannuthy. The animals brought for slaughter at Meat Technology Unit, Mannuthy were from herds of five different farms (University and Government Undertaking farms) in Kerala state. This included six animals culled on account of factors other than infertility with normal reproductive system (control group) and the remaining animals with a known history of infertility. In total, seven animals showed kinked cervix condition. Cervix was evaluated morphometrically and histologically. Grossly, the cervix was hard, kinked and S-shaped, with a mean length of 9.64 ± 1.19 cm. Average number of annular rings in the cervical canal was 4.14 ± 0.26 with an average diameter of 1.74 ± 0.18 cm. At the external os, diameter of the cervix was less, while at the uterine end, diameter was more. The opening of each cervical ring showed a misalignment instead of a straight line. Histologically, the cervix was lined by simple columnar epithelium with signs of degeneration and desquamation. However, the submucosal layer was extensively infiltrated by collagen fibres. In uterus, there was a significant difference in the number of endometrial glands and height of the glandular epithelial cells which was less when compared to the control group. Muscular layer outer to connective tissue layer was thin and uneven. Alterations of the glandular structures negatively influence the viability of spermatozoa due to the lack of secretory products. This fibrous, collagen rich kinked cervix limits the smooth deposition of the semen into the uterus during artificial insemination and the insufficiently dilated cervix affects its contractibility leading to dystocia and subfertility.

Histology, ultrastructure and post-natal development of paraepiglottic tonsil were studied in 36 apparently healthy male goats from one month to six months of age. The paraepiglottic tonsil was seen in all the goats studied and was a small elevation located lateral to the epiglottis in the ventromedial aspect of the pharyngeal side wall. It was lined by non-keratinised stratified squamous surface epithelium which was modified into reticular epithelium with fewer cell layers and excessive infiltration of lymphoid tissue at areas above lymphoid nodules. Distinct crypts were not seen. The lamina propria was composed of diffuse and nodular aggregations of lymphoid cells present as tonsillar nodules. The scanning electron microscopy of paraepiglottic tonsils of postnatal age groups showed flat, angular squamous cells in the surface epithelium covered by densely packed microplicae and smaller round to oval cells covered by closely packed knob-like, microvilli. The reticular epithelium was disrupted at places and lymphoid cells were seen projecting through it. In cut sections of the palatine tonsils, the lymphoid nodules were seen with large number of small, medium and large lymphocytes.

The lymphoid tissue in jejunal Peyer’s patches (JPP) in goats was studied in six apparently healthy male goats of six months of age. It was observed that in the JPP submucosal lymphoid nodules were seen with a corona and subepithelial dome region over it, an internodular region and the overlying follicle associated epithelium. The number of lymphoid nodules counted per field under low power magnification of microscope was 2.17 ± 0.17. The average diameter of the lymphoid nodules was 845.67 ± 1.61µm and the lymphocyte count in it was 28358.33 ± 119.32. Height of the dome of each lymphoid nodule measured 143.83 ± 1.3µm and the FAE covering it was 32.41 ± 48.92µm long at six months of age in goats. It was concluded that the lymphoid nodules in jejunal Peyer’s patches remained active and continued to produce lymphocytes suggesting that it was a secondary lymphoid organ in contrast to the ileal Peyer’s patches which are primary lymphoid organs.

The present study was conducted on the pelvic limb bones of a five year old male umbrella cockatoo. The femur was light in weight and presented a straight shaft, two extremities and four surfaces. The proximal extremity had a head with distinct fovea capitis, neck and indistinct trochanter major, while the distal extremity had a trochlea, two condyles and a wide intercondyloid groove. Patella was a small pea-sized sesamoid bone. The tibiotarsus was the largest of the leg bones and was one third longer than femur. It presented a long shaft with distinct fibular crest and two extremities. Both extremities showed medial and lateral condyles. From proximal extremity, the straight cnemial crest extended ventrally. The condyles of distal extremity were separated by intercondyloid fossa and continued caudally to wide grooved trochlea. Instead of extensor canal in other birds, a deep groove was observed. The fibula was with small head and rudimentary shaft and terminated near the middle of the shaft of tibiotarsus. The tarsometatarsus was extremely short. Its shaft presented convex dorsal surface whereas the plantar surface was concave without ridges. The distal extremity presented three articular trochleae. Between the trochlea for third and fourth digits, a bony canal was noticed. The spur core seen in cockerel was not observed in the present study. Four digits from one to four showed zygodactyl type of arrangement and contained two, three, four and five phalanges, respectively. Distal phalanx in each digit was a claw. The light femur and highly reduced fibula in umbrella cockatoo showed adaptations for flight whereas the positioning of the digits showed adaptation for climbing and grasping

The tubal tonsil is seen around the opening of the eustachian tube in the nasopharynx. It represents a part of nasal associated lymphoid tissue (NALT) and is also a component of the lymphoid tissue of Waldeyer’s ring (Kumar and Kumar 2012). Thus it forms a first line of defence against foreign antigens passing through the nasopharynx and therefore plays a key role in immunity. Since documented information about the comparative study of tonsils in pigs and goats is limited, and considering the prime importance of tonsils in mucosal immunity, a study was performed in which the morphological and histological characteristics were compared in both the species. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences ISSN: 2319-7706 Volume 9 Number 11 (2020) Journal homepage: http://www.ijcmas.com

Histology, histochemistry and ultrastructure of epidermis was studied in deer, goat and sheep. The skin consisted of two layers, viz. a superficial epidermis and the deeper dermis. Sweat and sebaceous glands, as well as hair follicles, were epidermal structures located in the dermis and subcutis. Epidermis was composed of stratified squamous keratinized epithelium. Among all the 27 regions studied in the three species, muzzle region had the thickest epidermis. Among the five layers of the epidermis, stratum basalis, stratum spinosum and stratum corneum were always present and formed continuous layers throughout the body surface. Stratum granulosum consisting of one to three layers of cells was a continuous layer in most of the regions. A definite stratum lucidum was seen only in the muzzle, dorsal nasal and ventral abdominal areas. PAS and Alcian blue positive areas were detected in stratum spinosum and stratum granulosum. The latter exhibited positive reaction as green fluorescence to fluorescein iso-thiocyanate conjugated lectin from Ulex europaeus . Intensity of reaction was more in sheep among the three species studied. Epidermis exhibited diffused positive reaction for oil red o. The epidermis showed a positive alkaline phosphatase reaction exept stratum corneum. A diffused positive reaction to acid phosphatase was noticed in epidermis. Melanocytes and keratin pigments in the different layers of skin exhibited a positive reaction in immunohistochemistry due to antigen-presenting immune cells i e. Langerhans cells. Transmission electron microscopy revealed cells in epidermis with keratohyaline granules.

Hair distribution patterns in the deer, goat and sheep were studied using skin samples collected from spotted deer brought for post mortem at College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, from the Thrissur zoo and forest department and from goats and sheep freshly slaughtered at the Meat Technology Unit, Mannuthy. Samples of 1cm3 were collected from 27 regions of skin, viz. muzzle, infraorbital, horn glands, dorsal face, lateral face, ventral face, ear pinna, dorsal neck, lateral neck, ventral neck, dorsal abdomen, lateral abdomen, ventral abdomen, dorsal forelimb, palmar, dorsal hindlimb, plantar, interdigital part of fore limb, interdigital part of hind limb, forelimb foot pad, hindlimb foot pad, inguinal, preputial scrotal regions of male dorsal thorax, perineum and dorsal nasal regions. The hair arrangement in the three species was simple, but arranged in groups. Mostly two to three hairs formed a group and they emerged out very closely but not from a single orifice unlike in the case of compound hairs. The muzzle region lacked hair on the rostral aspect and sparse wool hairs were found on the dorsal surface. Dorsal nasal and carpal regions consisted of dense population of short, stout hairs. Maximum hair density per microscope field under low power was noticed in the lateral aspect of neck, dorsal abdomen, palmar, interdigital aspect of hind limb, lateral abdomen and dorsal aspect of hind limb in deer. Hair was absent in the muzzle followed by dorsal face region in all three species in the present study. Maximum hair density per microscope field under low power was noticed on the dorsal aspect of fore limb, palmar aspect, pinna of ear, dorsal abdomen and interdigital space of hind limb in goat with minimum hair distribution on the ventral abdomen followed by lateral face region. Maximum hair density per microscope field under low power was noticed on the dorsal aspect of neck, interdigital space of fore limb, lateral aspect of neck and infraorbital in sheep with minimum hair distribution on the ventral abdomen, dorsal face and lateral face. In general, density of hair distribution was more in the deer than the goat and sheep