This paper examines the determinants of awareness and use of climate smart processing techniques (CSAPT) among small medium agro-processors in Sierra Leone, based on the premise that agro-processing activities contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) but with limited empirical evidence. CSAPT represents technologies used in postharvest processing that reduce GHG emissions. A descriptive research design and random sampling was used to select 134 out of 150 available agro-processors, from which data were collected. Awareness was measured on a 3-point scale of not aware (1), aware but not adopted (2), and adopted (3), which was pooled into total scores and transformed to binary coding for awareness and use respectively. The data were analyzed with Statistical Package for Social Sciences Version 30, using frequency counts, percentages, and Binary logistic regression. The models for the determinants of awareness and use of climate smart processing techniques show that variables included in the model were good predictors (Negelkerke R2=0.593 and 0.826) of factors that influence the awareness and use of CSAPT by 59% and 83% respectively. The results of the binary logistic regression showed that the common significant predictors of awareness and use of climate-smart processing techniques are gender, access to financial support, type of products, number of agro-processing activities, total attitude score on CSAPT. Majority of the agro-processors have low awareness and low level of use of climate-smart agro-processing techniques. The policy implications of the findings are that targeted training programs and financial support schemes would improve the use of CSAPT among agro-processors.

Smallholder farmers across East Africa face significant challenges in fully adopting agroecological practices, despite their demonstrated benefits for soil health, biodiversity, water conservation, and farm resilience. This study examined the determinants of smallholder farmers' responsiveness to agroecological principles and practices in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Madagascar using a sample of 993 farmers. A multi-stakeholder cross-sectional survey was conducted using a detailed, structured, and expert-validated questionnaire administered to smallholder farmers, considering multidimensional variation at both the farm and system levels. Multiple regression analysis and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were employed to explore the underlying dimensions of adoption and predictors of responsiveness. The results revealed substantial variation across countries. In Kenya, farmers implemented 12 or more principles, whereas in Madagascar and Ethiopia, adoption was moderate, with lower uptake of agroecological principles. Farmer Field Schools (FFS) influenced adoption primarily through social learning, whereby farmers collaboratively experiment, observe outcomes, and share experiences, rather than through top-down technology transfer. Regression analysis showed that knowledge co-creation, education level, agroecology-specific land use, and incentives for participation in and sharing of agroecological practices were significant predictors of responsiveness, while structural constraints played a moderating role. These findings highlight the need to prioritize extension models that are inclusive, participatory, and adaptive, linking farmer education, locally appropriate land-use strategies, and targeted incentives to overcome structural barriers and ensure agroecology delivers both ecological resilience and improved livelihoods. PCA extracted seven components—ecological practices, extension methods, social learning, institutional enhancements, experiential knowledge, adoption behaviors, and gender/culture—which explained 63.38% of the total variance. The study concludes that farmers' responsiveness to agroecological principles is shaped by a dynamic interplay of structural, behavioral, and institutional factors. Strengthening participatory extension systems, co-creation platforms, and incentive frameworks can enhance uptake. These findings provide evidence-based insights for designing context-specific interventions to accelerate agroecological transitions towards sustainable agriculture.

Locally Led Adaptation practices are major sources of response to the existential threats of climate change. The objective of this paper was to examine the embedment of Indigenous Knowledge by farmers in Locally Led Adaptation practices in Sierra Leone, using a qualitative analysis based on Focus Group discussions, and participant observation, which was analyzed with a qualitative approach. The Focus Group Discussions (FGD) were held with crop and livestock farmers using creole language for facilitation and discussion within their homestead. Each FGD session consisted of 6 to 8 persons separately for men and women for crop and livestock farmers giving a total of four FGD sessions. The results show that farmers embed Indigenous Knowledge in Locally Led Adaptation Practices through community seed multiplication, community breeding programs, diversification of livelihoods, application of integrated pest management, and collective observance of nature's signs to predict weather and communal development of schedules and calendar for farming activities. The study concluded and recommended the incorporation of indigenous knowledge into climate adaptation planning through sustained multi-level tribal engagement.

Maize remains central to food security and rural livelihoods among smallholder farmers in South Africa, particularly in the Eastern Cape Province. However, persistent yield gaps indicate that improved input use alone is insufficient without effective knowledge intermediation. This study moves beyond conventional impact assessments by examining how agricultural extension services influence technical efficiency under heterogeneous production environments. Using cross-sectional data from 306 smallholder maize farmers in the Chris Hani and OR Tambo District Municipalities, the study applies stochastic frontier analysis, endogenous switching regression, and a stochastic meta-frontier framework to control for selection bias and technological heterogeneity. Descriptive results indicate that 57% of farmers were female, with an average age of 60 years and a landholding of 8 hectares. The findings reveal that agricultural extension services significantly enhance maize productivity, with an average yield gain of 0.81 tonnes per hectare. Farmers with access to extension services operated at 93% technical efficiency, placing them closer to the production frontier and indicating superior production performance compared to non-participants, while the overall mean efficiency level was 77%, indicating room for improvement. Extension participation is influenced by education, income, credit access, market participation, and farmer organization membership. Farmers with access to extension services recorded a Technology Gap Ratio (TGR) of 0.95, indicating that they operated very close to the meta-frontier technology, whereas non-participants recorded a TGR of 0.70, reflecting a substantial technology gap. In conclusion, agricultural extension acts as both a productivity enhancer and a technology equalizer. Based on the study results, the study suggests a paradigm shift from conventional agricultural extension delivery to adaptive, digitally enabled, and market-oriented advisory systems. Strengthening agricultural extension systems through mobile-based platforms, tailored knowledge dissemination, and inclusive targeting of resource-constrained farmers can significantly narrow efficiency gaps and promote sustainable intensification. These may include creating WhatsApp groups, SMS and voice records.

The actionable guidelines for climate-smart agriculture were developed as advisory and prescriptive activities to promote the adoption of climate-smart agriculture techniques. The coverage of the guidelines aligns with the agroecological principles which serve as the foundation for cleaner production. The content analysis explored the nexus between cleaner production- agroecological principles and climate-smart agriculture, by examining the scope and intensity of coverage of agroecological principles through the perspectives of extended parallel process, construal level theory, and information deficit model by the actionable guidelines. The results reinforce the non-mutual exclusivity and exhaustivity among the three concepts due to the overlapping of the practice and knowledge of the concepts; and that the communication of any of the concepts inadvertently covers the other in a way that coherence, complementarity, and coordination have been established. The communication in the actionable guidelines emphasizes the intention for desired results, current activities needed to be implemented, implementation steps rather than the danger posed by climate change, and future implications and theoretical issues as often with climate change reports and communication outlets. The practical implication of the findings is that communication on climate change should not be overtly scientific if it is to elicit behavioral change and that the efficacy of the communication outlets should be evaluated for effectiveness.

Genetically modified (GM) maize holds significant potential to enhance agricultural productivity, food security, and farm returns. Yet, varying technical efficiency levels have been reported across countries, coupled with different levels of effectiveness of agricultural extension services, which could enhance high efficiency. This systematic review examines the impact of agricultural extension services on the technical efficiency of GM maize adoption in sub-Saharan Africa. A literature search across multiple databases identified 68 peer-reviewed studies (2011–2024) that focused on technical efficiency and extension services. The review found that effective extension services significantly improve technical efficiency in GM maize adoption. However, challenges such as limited information, strict regulations, high seed costs, and biosafety concerns hinder adoption. The review highlights the importance of targeted support for smallholder farmers and calls for tailored extension programs that address farmers’ specific needs. Additionally, encouraging collaboration between government agencies, NGOs, and local communities is essential for developing inclusive extension strategies that bridge knowledge gaps and promote sustainable agricultural practices.

This study examines the effects of production and distribution factors on improved seed systems in Nigeria and their implications for scaling climate resilient production and food systems, because production and distribution factors of improved seed and planting materials are major determinants of food and livelihood security. In this study, the interactions among these factors were examined using secondary data from the National Seed Council of Nigeria over 12 years. The variables covered are the number of seed companies, agro-dealers, quantity of foundation, certified breeder, and price of hybrid and open-pollinated seeds of maize, rice, sorghum, millet, wheat, cowpea, soybean, and groundnut. Principal component analysis extracted six components underlying seed production and distribution as Factor 1 (non-hybrid), Factor 2 (certification), Factor 3 (foundation), Factor 4 (prices), and Factor 5 (distribution), which accounted for a cumulative 89.51% variance. The correlation matrix shows that the quantity of certified open-pollinated maize seed is the most highly correlated variable, followed by certified lowland rice seed varieties, price of open-pollinated maize seed, and price of rice seeds. The findings on the production and distribution factors for improved seed imply that farmers will have low adaptive capacity in the use of climate resilient production and food systems.

This paper examined knowledge co-creation factors on agroecology as determinants of farmers well-being in Liberia and its implications for extension services. This is predicated on the fact that a nexus exists among the components of knowledge co-creation, agroecology and farmers well-being, which are not mutually exclusive nor exhaustive. Farmers’ involvement and participation in agricultural technology design and development are major components of the social dimension of well-being. Using a descriptive research design and a multi-stage sampling technique, 350 farmers were chosen. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data on farmers’ well-being (operationalised as a composite score); and dichotomized into high and low), Knowledge co-creation origin, enablers, factors, constraints, and activities and subjected to analysis using frequency counts, percentages, means and, One way analysis of variance as well as a probit regression model. Farmers that engaged in agroecology, who are mainly male, under 40, married, with secondary level education, five or more persons as household members, 15 years of farming experience, have a farm that is smaller than 10 acres, have not joined a farmers' organisation, have lived in the community for less than 15 years, and earn at least 500 Liberian dollars annually. Farmers learn agroecological practices mainly through extension agents, and surrounding farmers, while the prominent stakeholders are academic researchers, media and communication specialists, and extension agents/workers, and are involved in knowledge co-creation activities such as participatory decision, participatory research design, joint analysis, and feedback loops. The results shows that the most significant determinants of farmers wellbeing in knowledge co-creation are knowledge origin (p<0.01), cocreation enablers (p<0.01), cocreation factors (p<0.01), cocreation constraints (p<0.01), cocreation stakeholders (p<0.01), cocreation activities (p<0.01), age (p<0.01), gender (p<0.01), household size (p<0.01), and length of stay in community (p<0.01). Similarly, significant differences exist in farmers’ involvement in knowledge co-creation origin of agroecology technologies (F = 7.51, p<0.01), knowledge co- creation enablers (F = 21.61, p<0.01), knowledge co-creation factors (F = 22.63, p<0.01), knowledge co-creation constraints shows that a significant difference exist (F = 32.17, p<0.01) and knowledge co-creation activities, (F = 20.13, p<0.01). The implications of the findings are that co-creation should not only be profusely debated in extension services but critical involvement, enabling factors, activities and constraints must be properly identified and appropriately applied.

Livelihoods associated with transhumance cattle production are increasingly decimated and threatened by serious loss of human lives due to increasing competition for resources as driven by cattle logic and capital logic, thus the plan and drive for livestock transformation have been subjected to the recalcitrance of transhumance in Nigeria. This study examined cattle farmers' willingness and attitude towards the establishment of private grazing lands in Sokoto State Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 457 cattle farmers from 10 Local Government Areas of Sokoto State, from which data were collected through a structured questionnaire and subjected to frequency counts, percentages, mean and standard deviation, Probit regression, and Principal component analysis. The results revealed that cattle farmers have unfavorable attitudes and are unwilling to establish private grazing lands. The determinants of cattle farmers' willingness and attitude to the establishment of grazing lands overlap and include age (t = 1.97; p < 0.05); marital status (t = -11.35; p < 0.05); educational level (t = -2.73; p < 0.05); credit amount (t = -44.56; p < 0.05); source of credit (t = -5.01; p < 0.05); herd composition (t = -2.20; p < 0.05); attitude (t = 8.82; p < 0.05) and constraints (t = 1.97; p < 0.05). The Principal Component Analysis extracted factors are Factor 1 (Resource utilization), Factor 2 (Environment concerns), Factor 3 (practice suitability), and Factor 4 (cattle productivity) and accounted for 21.59%, 6.93%, 6.20%, 5.35% of the variance respectively; with a cumulative 40.06% variance. These results affirm Bartlett's Test of Sphericity with a value of X-2 = 1991.43, p = 0.00, and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy of 0.835. It is recommended that a clear distinction of logic for curtailing transhumance which is responsible for farmer-herder conflicts be established and limitations of cattle movements defined within their immediate surroundings.

This study explores the determinants of information needed on climate-smart agriculture among male and female farmers across farming systems and agroecological zones in Sierra Leone and the implications for anticipatory actions on the basis of espousing the differences in their susceptibilities and coping mechanisms in order to improve their resilience. Eight hundred and sixty-five households were randomly selected from a sampling frame of one million households generated through house listing in twenty-one villages in Sierra Leone. In addition to secondary weather data, primary data were collected with a structured questionnaire covering climate-smart agriculture practices and analyzed using frequencies, percentages, t-test, trend analysis, Probit regression, and relationship maps to enhance data visualization. The results show that a differential in information needs exists between male and female farmers with female farmers having the highest information need. The determinants of information need are agroecological zone, age, education, marital status, household size, number of children below 18 years, household status, length of stay, farming experience, farming system, adoption, and constraints were significant determinants. From the trend analysis, it was inferred that information needs unmet have a high propensity to transform into anticipatory actions of emergencies and humanitarian crises.

Women engagement and reward systems are vital for rural development as they have a direct consequence on the improvement, equality, as well as accelerating agricultural productivity generally, and increasing food supply in particular at the local and national levels. The study highlighted the contribution of the Award Incentives and Competition (AIC) programme in enhancing women farmers’ economic strength. It also looked at how influence, change and technological know-how could improve women farmers’ participation in development programmes. It provided an overview of the determinants of female entrepreneurship development in rural North West Province using a quantitative survey method approach. One hundred and fifty-six women farmers, who were randomly selected from all districts in the province and different enterprises out of 520 eligible women farmers, participated in the study. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and inferential (Probit regression) model. Based on empirical data, the Probit regression model estimates suggested that the educational status, creation of temporary and permanent jobs, and extension sources were some of the determinants of entrepreneurial development in the study area. The study recommends that policymakers continue to advocate for education as female farmers need to participate in development programme(s).

This study evaluated the awareness and perception of climate change among smallholder farmers across two agroecological zones (AEZs) of Oyo state Southwest Nigeria. A multistage sampling technique was employed to select 400 respondents from eight local government areas. Climate data were analysed for differences within and between the two AEZs with the Mann–Kendall and Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests, respectively. A structured questionnaire was used for data collection and responses are presented as frequencies and percentages. A Tobit regression model was used to unravel the determinants of awareness and perception of climate change among the farmers. Significant differences were observed in the climate variables within and across the AEZs. The farmers were aware of, and perceived changes in temperature, rainfall, increasing incidence of pests and the occurrence of diseases, drought, and a prolonged dry season as indicators of climate change. The Tobit regression analysis pointed to agroecological zones, land tenure systems and religion as significant determinants of climate change awareness and perception among the farmers. The results of this study posit that an increase in the level of understanding of climate change indicators among smallholder farmers will birth a deeper interpretation of the effects of climate change on agriculture. This will assist smallholder farmers in preparing effective and scaled-up indigenous responses to combat the effects of climate change on their farming systems.

Female agricultural workers play an important role in feeding the world; hence, there is a need to encourage females in agricultural enterprises of developing countries. This study specifically identified the socioeconomic characteristics of the participants, their degree of participation, the constraints to their participation, as well as the benefits of and the level of commercialization of participants as a result of the AIC programme. This study employed a simple random sampling technique to collect data from 156 beneficiaries of the programme. Ordered probit regression and descriptive analysis were used in the analysis. The findings of the study show that the majority of the beneficiaries (75.6%) were involved in livestock production. The ordered probit regression model produced a good fit for the data and the computed F value was statistically significant (p < 0.01). The study, therefore, concluded that the programme motivates female subsistence farmers to advance to large-scale farming. The study recommends that the programme in North West province should be further strengthened and expanded to accommodate and encourage more females to participate in agriculture.

The study assessed demand-driven agricultural extension curricula by alumni from universities in Nigeria partnering with Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education (SAFE) on such curriculum for at least seven years. Using a cross-sectional research design and cluster sampling technique, 227 alumni were randomly selected from a population of 520. Data were collected through structured questionnaire on socio-economic characteristics, mode of study, areas of specialization operationalized as close-ended questions and rating of programme components on a 5 -point Likert type scale of poor (1) fair (2) good (3) very good (4) excellent (5) with 70 items. Data entry and analysis were done with SPSS 25 using percentages, mean score and multiple regression analysis. Adult education approaches, supervised enterprise projects, students’ supervision, academic advice, information sharing, and participation in research projects had highest positive rating; while fund raising, scholarship, opportunity for enrolling and be part of a professional scientific network, linkage & involvement with Sasakawa Africa Association (SAA) field activities, laboratories and variety of subjects offered had highest negative rating. Socio-economic characteristics of alumni were significantly correlated and explained 49 percent of the variation in programme rating. The study recommends that there is need to review the curricula covered in this study and mechanisms for compliance with the Sasakawa methodology should be reinvigorated. Keywords: alumni, demand-driven, agricultural extension, university curricula.

The paper examined demand-driven agricultural extension education in Nigeria and emphasized the need for extension professionals to acquire soft skills in addition to their technical capabilities through the utilization of demand-driven extension education (DDEE) strategies. A review of demand-driven agricultural extension education in Nigeria as introduced by Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education in universities was carried out to assess the concepts of demand-driven extension education, capacity development, skill, skillmismatch. The reviews were analysed using themes and the findings were reported based on the themes identified from the review analysis. Job matching and human capital theories are the theoretical underpinning for this paper. The paper further highlighted the numerous benefits of DDEE prominent among which include its ability to adapt to the need of the learners and employers, utilize dynamic work-based pedagogy to improve competencies, and respond to the needs of the labour markets to ensure continuous alignment between desired qualification and available training. It is important to properly mainstream the use of demand-driven extension education strategies in training extension personnel for better and more sustainable extension and services delivery to farmers.

A qualitative scenario analysis of demand-driven curriculum on agricultural extension in Nigeria was performed among farmers, extension agents, input dealers, NGOs, alumni and potential students, ministry of agriculture, agricultural cooperatives, and lecturers from Universities and Colleges of Agriculture. The model of scenario analysis applied involved scenario scope, key drivers, outcomes, scenario construction, and expert consultation. The findings highlight that the key drivers and outcomes are high and low pool of school leavers for enrolment in the SAFE program, Demand Driven Curriculum (SDDC), Supervised Enterprise Project (SEP), Enterprise Centre (EC) and any forms of combination as elements of components of the SAFE program that universities are willing to adopt into the training curriculum; mid-career trainees alone, high school graduates alone, high school graduates and mid-career trainees the same class, the same curriculum different classes and high school graduates and mid-career trainees in different classes as forms of adaptation of the SAFE program and blended learning, distance learning, online platform, face to face, block teaching, weekend courses, summer programs as modes of delivery. The paper concludes the training should be packaged for the benefits of actors along the agricultural extension value-chain by establishing different forms of changes and scenarios.