During the excavations at Tel Azekah, a cistern was discovered on the tell's lower plateau containing the remains of a minimum of 68 individuals, almost all of whom were infants and young children. The osteological analysis revealed that approximately 90% of the individuals were under five years of age, 70% even less than two years old. The burial seems to be primary, and the deposition of the remains was dated to the Persian period (ca. 5th century bce) based on the analysis of ceramics and small finds. This paper presents the archaeological context, ceramics, small finds, and human remains. We propose that during the Persian period, the cistern functioned mainly as a mass burial site for infants who were not granted individual interments since they were not yet weaned. The findings address broader questions, such as the social status of infants, weaning as a rite of passage, and mortuary practices during the Persian Period.

ABSTRACT Calcite‐Alabaster vessels found in the Southern Levant during the Bronze Age have traditionally been considered Egyptian imports. This assumption was recently challenged by the discovery of a Bronze Age quarry in the Te'omim Cave. This study investigated six Calcite‐Alabaster objects from Tel Azekah, including two drill cores, to determine raw material provenance and reassess regional production processes. Stable carbon (δ 13 C) and oxygen (δ 18 O) isotope analysis and elemental concentration analysis were employed to compare Tel Azekah samples with known quarries in Israel and Egypt. The results demonstrate that the material for the objects originated in Egyptian quarries. However, the presence of drill cores provides direct evidence for local production at Tel Azekah using imported Egyptian raw materials.

A complete storage jar with a hieratic inscription was uncovered at Tel Azekah, providing new evidence for Egyptian administrative activity in the Southern Levant at the very end of the Late Bronze Age. The jar was found in a destruction layer dated to the second half of the 12th century BCE and thus represents the latest securely dated hieratic text from the region. The inscription, written in ink on the shoulder of the jar, was part of a title, possibly referring to an official in charge of tax collection. The results from the petrographic analysis indicate that the jar originated from neighbouring Tell es. -S. afi/Gath. The findings display the ongoing presence of Egyptian-trained personnel in the Shephelah and the importance of Tel Azekah and its elite in the imperial administrative system.

We present a novel underground imaging system that utilizes cosmic-ray muons to explore the subsurface environment at the City of David archaeological site in ancient Jerusalem. This report details the initial findings from measurements conducted at a large cistern, commonly called "Jeremiah's cistern" (referenced in Jeremiah 38:6). The system aims to locate and map hidden voids and structural anomalies within the overburden. Our primary outcome is the derivation of the angular ground depth, which serves as a proxy for understanding the integrated density distribution of the overburden. This work represents a significant interdisciplinary effort to deepen our understanding of this historically important site.

The identification of destruction layers in the ancient southern Levant has traditionally focused on visible indicators like collapse, in situ pottery assemblages, and fire markers. However, microscopic criteria can provide insight into past destruction events when visible evidence has not been preserved and improve our ability to reconstruct them. The Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem at the end of the Iron Age is considered a key event in the region's history. Three structures dated to this period were excavated in Area U, at the city's ancient core on the southeastern ridge. However, only one room among those excavated showed a clear destruction layer. This paper analyzes the micro-archaeological evidence from this room and from another room that showed no clear indication of destruction by fire. The analysis revealed that both rooms were exposed to low levels of radiated heat caused by fire during the destruction and were left open to decay through natural erosion. The results of this study indicate that by carefully examining the microscopic markers in relation to the macroscopic context, we may identify destruction by fire in structures where no clear markers were identifiable during the excavation. In addition to searching for visible signs of destruction, the analysis of these "invisible" markers should be integrated to achieve a more accurate reconstruction of the site's history.

In this contribution, we examine the custom of depositing lamps concealed between two bowls in a practice that became prevalent in the Southern Levant during the Late Bronze Age and persisted into the early Iron Age. Through meticulous examination of eleven such deposits unearthed at Tel Azekah, we elucidate the chronological evolution of this practice and its constituent elements. This investigation prompts a discussion of the role of the practice in architecture-related rituals and the contextual factors contributing to its inception in the days of Egyptian colonialism and its endurance up to the Iron IIA.

The fortifications of Lachish, a key site in archaeology of the Iron Age Southern Levant, are the focus of ongoing debate. The Outer Revetment Wall, encircling nearly the entire site, was traditionally associated with Levels IV-III and was thought to have been in use during the Assyrian campaign in 701 BCE. It has recently been suggested that it was built a millennium earlier. Here we present archaeomagnetic dating of a mudbrick tower incorporated in this wall, indicating that it was burnt during the Iron Age and was most likely built during this period. Combining archaeological, historical and archaeomagnetic data reveals the intense fire that occurred during the 701 BCE Assyrian siege. This fire could have been set by the people of Lachish, in a desperate attempt to damage the Assyrian siege engines or siege ramp, as depicted in the well-known Lachish relief, or by the Assyrians as part of their siege tactics.

Summary Although the Shephelah region (Israel) is of a great archaeological significance and has been intensively excavated, very little is known about its landscape history. This study presents two large‐scale charred wood assemblages (>2300 items) that were recovered from Tel Azekah and Tel Lachish in order to reconstruct the ancient vegetation of the Shephelah. The two assemblages cover a temporal range from the Middle Bronze Age through the Hellenistic period (c.2000–100 BC). This new diachronic environmental investigation demonstrates that the natural arboreal vegetation in the Shephelah was dominated by oak and pistachio. From the perspective of the regional fruit tree horticulture, olive was the dominant component, indicating that the region included extensive olive orchards. Other documented fruit trees are grapevine, fig, sycamore fig, carob, date palm and almond. The high frequencies of olive remains throughout all investigated periods point to climatic conditions in the region being close to what we are facing today, with at least 400–450 mm of annual precipitation, which is required for a profitable grove. During the Iron Age II, the proportion of olive remains reached its zenith, most probably as a result of Assyrian agroeconomic management that assigned the Shephelah to olive oil production. At the same time, a reduction in natural Mediterranean trees was identified, representing intense human pressure on the natural environment. The discovery of charred cedar of Lebanon remains only at Lachish points to the high status of the site within the region.

The collection of essays in this book represents more than twenty years of research on the history and archeology of Judah, as well as the study of the Biblical literature written in and about the period that might be called the "Age of Empires". This 600-year-long period, when Judah was a vassal Assyrian, Egyptian and Babylonian kingdom and then a province under the consecutive rule of the Babylonian, Persian, Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires, was the longest and the most influential in Judean history and historiography. The administration that was shaped and developed during this period, the rural economy, the settlement pattern and the place of Jerusalem as a small temple, surrounded by a small settlement of (mainly) priests, Levites and other temple servants, characterize Judah during most of its history. This is the formative period when most of the Hebrew Bible was written and edited, when the main features of Judaism were shaped and when Judean cult and theology were created and developed. The 36 papers contained in this book present a broad picture of the Hebrew Bible against the background of the Biblical history and the archeology of Judah throughout the six centuries of the "Age of Empires".

Recent salvage excavations at Horvat Tevet in northern Israel revealed a cemetery consisting of at least 25 burials dated to the Iron I period (11th-10th centuries BCE). In this article, the burial practices employed in this cemetery are analyzed in order to shed light on the social complexity, economy, and funerary rituals of a rural community in the Jezreel Valley in the period between the collapse of Egyptian rule in Canaan and the formation of early monarchic Israel. Based on the finds in the graves and variations between graves, it is concluded that the site was home to a community characterized by minimal wealth accumulation, limited social division, and few long-distance trade contacts, though there are implications that the site had connections with the Beth-Shean Valley. This evidence is then contextualized in light of mortuary data from the Late Bronze II-Iron IIA Jezreel Valley in order to define aspects of continuity and change during the transition from Canaanite city-states to territorial polities.(1)

The animal economy of Jerusalem in the wake of the Neo-Babylonian destruction and reestablishment of the city in the 6(th) through the 2(nd) cent. B.C.E. is relatively unknown. This paper presents the first diachronic perspective of Jerusalem and its hinterland's animal economy in the latter half of the 1(st) mill. B.C.E., against the backdrop of geopolitical, environmental, and cultural changes. To accomplish this aim, we carried out a synchronic and diachronic study of the faunal assemblages from two sites dated to this time frame: Giv'ati Parking Lot (Area 10) in Jerusalem and Nebi Samuel in the hinterland. Further, we studied these sites in the context of previously published contemporary sites. We demonstrate that Jerusalem continued to butcher locally and consume livestock acquired through direct and indirect channels in both periods. At the same time, those in the hinterland continued to produce meat and agropastoral products for themselves and external consumers. Additional conclusions of this research indicate that while there is continuity in the herd management practices of sheep and goats in Jerusalem and its hinterland, there is a change in the exploitation of cattle and chicken. We suggest that these changes relate to social, cultural, and religious developments in the latter half of the 1(st) mill. B.C.E.

Burnt materials are very common in the archaeological record. Their identification and the reconstruction of their firing history are crucial for reliable archaeological interpretations. Commonly used methods are limited in their ability to identify and estimate heating temperatures below ~500⁰C and cannot reconstruct the orientation in which these materials were burnt. Stepwise thermal demagnetization is widely used in archaeomagnetism, but its use for identifying burnt materials and reconstructing paleotemperatures requires further experimental verification. Here we present an experimental test that has indicated that this method is useful for identifying the firing of mud bricks to 190⁰C or higher. Application of the method to oriented samples also enables reconstruction of the position in which they cooled down. Our algorithm for interpreting thermal demagnetization results was tested on 49 miniature sun-dried "mud bricks", 46 of which were heated to a range of temperatures between 100⁰C to 700⁰C under a controlled magnetic field and three "bricks" which were not heated and used as a control group. The results enabled distinguishing between unheated material and material heated to at least 190⁰C and accurately recovering the minimum heating temperature of the latter. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) on the same materials demonstrated how the two methods complement each other. We implemented the thermal demagnetization method on burnt materials from an Iron Age structure at Tell es-Safi/Gath (central Israel), which led to a revision of the previously published understanding of this archaeological context. We demonstrated that the conflagration occurred within the structure, and not only in its vicinity as previously suggested. We also showed that a previously published hypothesis that bricks were fired in a kiln prior to construction is very unlikely. Finally, we conclude that the destruction of the structure occurred in a single event and not in stages over several decades.

This article deals with the oft-debated identification of Moresheth Gath, mentioned in the book of Micah as the prophet's hometown. Based on comprehensive analysis of texts from the early Christian period, the Amarna archive and the book of Micah, the authors claim for the first time that Moresheth Gath is to be identified with Azekah, the economically and strategically important site in the western Shephelah. >> Moresheth Gath << was the old name of the site before becoming part of Judah at the end of the 9th century BCE, when the Judahite rulers renamed it >> Azekah <<.

Abstract This article deals with the oft-debated identification of Moresheth Gath, mentioned in the book of Micah as the prophet’s hometown. Based on comprehensive analysis of texts from the early Christian period, the Amarna archive and the book of Micah, the authors claim for the first time that Moresheth Gath is to be identified with Azekah, the economically and strategically important site in the western Shephelah. »Moresheth Gath« was the old name of the site before becoming part of Judah at the end of the 9th century BCE, when the Judahite rulers renamed it »Azekah«.

This paper discusses two gaps that relate to the dichotomy between Jerusalem as a symbolic concept and as a physical reality: The first gap is between the reality of the pre-Roman Period city of Jerusalem, as is evidenced by the archaeological remains, and between the images of Jerusalem as reflected in the Biblical descriptions. For hundreds of years, during the Babylonian, Persian and early Hellenistic Periods, few hundred people who lived around the small temple, could not ignore the size and strength of the ruins from the Iron Age II City of Jerusalem. This is probably the source for the descriptions of "Heavenly Jerusalem," that were, on the one hand, the source of,' and on the other hand the fuel for' the glorification of Jerusalem, which shaped and integrated the image of the city within the memory of the nation. The second gap is between the actual archaeological finds from pre-Roman Period Jerusalem and the modern scholarly interpretations and reconstructions of these finds. The integration of the reality of the "glorious Jerusalem" of the Roman period with the Biblical mythical descriptions of the city, lead to the scholarly reconstruction of a city that never existed. This re-imagined Jerusalem is one that exists far from the clear data - both Biblical and archaeological. Most scholars who studied the history of Jerusalem during these periods - whether consciously or unconsciously - followed the legendary Biblical image of the city, and subsequently created a reconstruction that stands in stark contrast to the actual facts on the ground. In this paper, I would like to claim that these two "Jerusalems" - both the symbolic and the real - were never meant to meet - not when most of the Biblical descriptions were written when the city was small and poor, nor when modern reconstructions regarding the city were created, in most cases based on these Biblical descriptions.

Uzziah ruled in Judah for many years, yet the description of his rule in the book of Kings is laconic. The book of Chronicles, on the other hand, provides an extensive description of his reign that stems from authorial ideology, theology, and processes of identity formation. The book of Ezra-Nehemiah describes a series of confrontations from four directions, with Uzziah’s battles with the Philistines, the Arab tribes, and the Ammonites being three of these fronts. The Chronicler, writing several decades after Ezra-Nehemiah, was aware of the Ezra-Nehemiah text or its narrative, and developed the figure of Uzziah as a great king, thus serving his own national, economic, ethnic, and religious goals.