The purpose of this study is to explore the suitability of an andragogy-inspired approach to teaching in a newly developed military leadership course for seasoned officers. First, we argue that it is theoretically reasonable to consider andragogy as useful for creating a learning environment suited to officers’ needs. Such an environment may help them navigate the complexities of the military context while employing the trust-based leadership style of mission command. Second, we examined course participants’ learning-environment experiences through a questionnaire that gathered their reflections on six common andragogical learning assumptions. Our thematic analysis indicated that, overall, participants perceived these assumptions as positively influencing their learning process. However, participants’ reflections highlight the importance of course timing, the balance between theory and practice, psychological safety, and motivation in strengthening the andragogical approach in the context of this course. Based on this exploratory study, we conclude that andragogy offers a promising framework for educating seasoned officers in leadership. For more definitive and generalizable conclusions, however, we encourage further empirical research with larger samples and diverse study designs. Article visualizations:

Critical incident policing challenges the cognitive capacities of police officers. This study examines third-year police students’ reported thinking processes during a critical incident simulation, focusing on rumination, characterised by persistent and repetitive dwelling on thoughts, experiences, or personal states. Thematic analysis of interviews with ten participants concluded on three main themes: “Preparatory thoughts”, “tuning into the situation” and “the aftermath”, each encompassing multiple subthemes. Our analysis suggests that differentiating between rumination’s constructive and unconstructive aspects aids in understanding police students’ thinking processes in this context. For the most part, participants reported engaging in constructive facets of deliberate and concrete rumination before and during the exercise. Post-exercise, their thinking became more evaluative and reflective, often focusing on negatively valenced content. Such thinking could potentially lead to both constructive reflection and unconstructive brooding rumination. We propose that police training could benefit from encouraging deliberate and concrete rumination during and reflective rumination after exercises to enhance cognitive preparedness for critical incidents in later duty.

The scope of the study was to qualitatively explore how police interviewers in Norway experience the interpersonal aspects of disclosing potential evidence during suspect interviews. Specifically, we aimed to explore what the participants experienced as required by them on an interpersonal level to carry out an appropriate evidence disclosure process, what challenges that may arise in maintaining rapport, and how these challenges can be handled. Data were collected through four focus group interviews of police investigators (n = 29) and analysed using thematic analysis that resulted in four main themes: (1) Importance of preparation and being confident in the police interviewer role, (2) Being flexible and adaptable as key skills to managing various situations, changes, and unforeseen events, (3) Managing the transition from information-gathering to challenging the suspect's account, and (4) Exploring the interviewees' resistance and handling their own reactions. The findings are discussed in relation to current theory and research, with an emphasis on the importance of police interviewers' ability to adapt to changes in circumstances and suspects behaviours during investigative interviews.

Sound use-of-force decisions are essential for police performance in critical incidents. In this exploratory study we seek to better understand the decision-making processes that are involved. Eighty-six third-year police students performed a use-of-force training exercise in an audio-visual, critical scenario simulation. Participants answered debriefing interviews about their subjective decision processes. Qualitative content analyses of the interviews indicated that the decision-making was based on visual, dynamic, and central information, more than on auditory, static, and peripheral information. Thoughts about the situation as well as thoughts about themselves were reported. Decision strategies were affected by level of expertise. Most participants made decisions that met safety concerns. The current study emphasizes the advantage of familiarizing students with a variety of operational settings, as well as their personal reactions towards them. It suggests the advantages of simulated training that includes psychological factors alongside more tactical and technical factors, including training in stress-regulation techniques.

Changes in Personality and Hardiness over the Course of Police Training The purpose of this study was to explore whether hardiness and Big Five personality trait levels of students would change during the Norwegian bachelor programme in policing. The police students (n = 57) were assessed with the measures of BFI-20 and DRS-15-R at the beginning (Time 1) and on completion of their training (Time 2), as were a comparison group of psychology bachelor students (n = 40). The results revealed some differences in the scores between the study groups, where the most significant finding was that police students reported higher mean levels of the emotional stability personality trait compared with psychology students. Moreover, whereas the police students reported several mean-level changes when comparing the personality trait and hardiness scores obtained at the beginning and end of the study programme, such changes were not witnessed by the psychology students. Lastly, the findings revealed that the scores on the personality traits of agreeableness and emotional stability underwent significantly different change patterns when comparing the student groups. Police and psychology students reported opposing changes on these traits, respectively, a decrease and an increase. We conclude that the bachelor programme in policing seems to influence the student’s personality characteristics.

The aim of the study was to explore the research question: What challenges to building rapport can police interviewers experience when interviewing suspects displaying disruptive behaviors, and how can these challenges be managed? To gather data, 14 police officers in academic positions (with previous experience of investigations), completed a five open text-question questionnaire. Thematic analysis was conducted and resulted in three main themes: (1) Disruptive behaviors and their influence on the interview process, (2) Being prepared through knowledge of the case and the person, and (3) Responding to resistance through communication, understanding, and relating to the interviewee's state. The results highlight the importance of planning and preparing the interviews, particularly regarding strategies for establishing and maintaining rapport, as well as being able to respond constructively to the suspect's behavior during the interview. The results are discussed in relation to current protocols and research on the interviewing of suspects.

Investigative interviews of people with severe mental illness are potentially challenging for police interviewers. The purpose of the study was to explore how police interviewers respond to interviewees' expressions of reticence to maintain rapport. To reach our research aims, we studied transcripts of all police interviews with adult victims with a mental illness classified as vulnerable and conducted at Barnahus (Children's House) in Norway between 2015 and 2017. The final sample consisted of nine transcriptions from real-life investigative interviews with six female alleged victims of sexual abuse. A thematic analysis of the transcripts showed that the police interviewers responded to reticence in three main ways: by acknowledging the interviewee's state, encouraging and showing concern and addressing the interviewee's needs. We discuss the findings in relation to current protocols for investigative interviewing and provide suggestions for further research.

Following Kobasa’s seminal description of hardiness in 1979, this psychological construct has attained an increased research focus in law enforcement. The present study adds to this research focus by sampling 156 Norwegian police student trainees to investigate whether trainees’ hardiness levels were related to their performance in a high-stress baton exercise. The Dispositional Resilience Scale-15-R was used to measure hardiness and its three components: commitment, challenge, and control. Baton performance was independently evaluated by two examiners. The results of a regression analysis controlling for age and sex revealed that, among the three components, commitment significantly predicted baton performance. Considerable sex differences were observed in the performance scores, where men outperformed women. An interaction model treating sex as a moderator showed that the commitment prediction was aligned across men and women. In conclusion, police educators should increase their focus on hardiness—especially the commitment component—to facilitate the police student trainees’ operational skill training.

The purpose of the study was to qualitatively explore how police investigators in Norway experience interviewing suspects. Specifically, we sought to investigate the relationship between theory (the Tactical Interview Model) and practice concerning how police interviewers establish the interviewee's account and disclose potential evidence-related information. To explore processes relevant to the research objective, four focus group interviews of police interviewers were conducted (n = 29). The data was analysed using a thematic analysis which resulted in four main themes: (1) Planning and preparing: considering potentially evidence-relevant information - Its possible value, alternative explanations, and influence on the interview process, (2) Establishing rapport and balancing dilemmas: Providing sufficient information without affecting the interviewee's account, (3) Exploring the interviewee's account through questioning and 'closing doors', and (4) Challenge through clarification: disclosure of potential evidence-related information and adapting to the interviewee. The findings are discussed in relation to the Tactical Interview Model. Implications for practice and future directions are presented.

The present study investigated: (1) differences in personality traits and hardiness between police and psychology students; and (2) the relationship between personality traits and hardiness. To achieve these aims, we obtained scores using the Big Five Inventory-20 and the Dispositional Resilience Scale-15-R from n = 125 police students and n = 177 psychology students. Police students relative to psychology students, as expected, scored significantly higher on extraversion, conscientiousness, and emotional stability, and lower on openness. Further, the police students scored higher than psychology students on agreeableness, which was unexpected. For hardiness, police students also scored significantly higher than the psychology students. There was, however, no significant difference for the hardiness component of control. All Big Five traits (except agreeableness) predicted hardiness in a stepwise regression, where emotional stability was the strongest isolated predictor (β = 0.40). When treating hardiness as a dichotomized variable, for identifying those especially low or high on hardiness, openness was the strongest predictor for the high hardiness group: OR = 1.69 (95% CI 1.24-2.30). Margin plots revealed that increases in Big Five trait scores, except agreeableness, elevated the probability of belonging to the high hardiness group independent of field of study. We conclude that there is some support for a Norwegian 'police student personality'. Additionally, we discuss nuances in the personality-relatedness of the hardiness construct based on results from a linear and logistic regression, respectively.

The purpose of the current pilot study was to evaluate the suitability and usefulness of short-form measures of personality (BFI-20) and hardiness (DRS-15-R) for an upcoming research project. We used a sample of police students (N = 129) to investigate: (1) the rudimentary psychometric properties of the instruments, and (2) the covariation between the obtained scores on these measures. The results showed that hardiness and Emotional stability had a large covariation and that Emotional stability was a strong predictor of the total hardiness score. We discuss the results in relation to previous research and conclude that useful knowledge of individual differences among police students can be obtained with these measures.

In the investigation of a criminal event, the police may encounter witnesses or victims experiencing symptoms of being traumatized (e.g. anxiety, intrusive thoughts or avoidance of trauma-related stimuli). This may pose a challenge in investigative interviews where police interviewers aim to obtain reliable and detailed accounts. Based on previous theory and research, this theoretical paper aims to outline recommendations for police interviewers for approaching traumatized adult witnesses to facilitate communication, attend to the well-being of the individual and reach investigative aims. First, factors considered important for preparing for the interview and building rapport are presented. Then, different aspects of how to facilitate the interviewee's account will be described with an emphasis on how police interviewers can approach emotional reactions to maintain rapport.

The aim of the study was to explore the factors considered important and useful in facilitating safety and building rapport in police investigative interviews with traumatized interviewees. We conducted 21 semi-structured interviews of police investigators involved in investigative interviewing of victims after the Utoya massacre on 22 July 2011 in Norway. Using a thematic analysis based on a reflexive hermeneutic-phenomenological epistemology, four themes emerged: (i) preparation through planning, reflection, and openness: balancing knowing and being receptive; (ii) using first impressions, casual conversation, and communicating expectations to make the interviewee comfortable; (iii) getting closer to the experience of the interviewee through engagement, adaptation, and understanding; and (iv) handling negative feelings and being receptive in the interview relationship. We discuss the findings in relation to current theory and research on investigative interviewing and highlight the importance of working on an emotional level to facilitate rapport when interviewing traumatized interviewees.

In police investigative interviews, investigators may encounter interviewees who are experiencing a wide range of emotional states that must be accommodated and managed to elicit information about a given event. The aim of this study was to explore how the theoretical concept of emotional intelligence may be of value in describing investigators’ management of emotion in interviews. First, we define emotional intelligence in the context of investigative interviewing, emphasising empathy and emotion regulation. Then, we present four key considerations for training interviewers in managing emotions. The implications of implementing the concept of emotional intelligence in investigative interviewing are

In police investigative interviews, investigators may encounter interviewees who are experiencing a wide range of emotional states that must be accommodated and managed to elicit information about a given event. The aim of this study was to explore how the theoretical concept of emotional intelligence may be of value in describing investigators' management of emotion in interviews. First, we define emotional intelligence in the context of investigative interviewing, emphasizing empathy and emotion regulation. Then, we present four key considerations for training interviewers in managing emotions. The implications of implementing the concept of emotional intelligence in investigative interviewing are discussed.

OBJECTIVEThe aim of this study was to qualitatively explore approaches to police interviewing of traumatized victims experiencing distress. Specifically, we examined the research question: What do police investigators regard as useful approaches to regulating distress, maintaining rapport and promoting the well-being of the interviewee?METHODTo explore processes relevant to the research objective, 21 semistructured interviews were conducted of police investigators who interviewed survivors following the Utøya massacre on July 22, 2011 in Norway. To examine the relationship between the research question and the material, we used thematic analysis based on a reflexive hermeneutic-phenomenological epistemology.RESULTSFollowing the analysis, 3 main themes emerged: (1) becoming aware of the interviewees' capacity to cope with distress by attending to nonverbal cues, (2) interviewers communicating acceptance and modeling how to cope with painful emotions, and, (3) regulating distress by responding to the interviewees' emotional needs, helping them to feel safe and promoting the positive.CONCLUSIONThe findings of the study show the importance of relational processes in investigative interviewing of traumatized interviewees, particularly with regard to coping with emotions. The results suggest that if the police investigator who is conducting an investigative interview can offer a trusting, safe and compassionate relationship, or if he or she steers the relational dynamics toward safety in the present moment when distress arises, he or she may facilitate the regulation of distress. We propose that if the interviewee's emotions are managed in this way during the police interview, it may lead to increased rapport and promote psychological health. (PsycINFO Database Record