Most European water bodies fail to meet good ecological status, largely due to excessive phosphorus (P) concentrations. Despite policy efforts, little improvement has occurred over the past 15 years. To put the situation into historical perspective, this study investigates long-term human impacts on riverine P concentrations by modelling P export throughout the Holocene. Three approaches were compared: a spatially lumped nutrient export coefficient (EC) model, a spatially explicit sediment export model adapted for P export (WaTEM/SEDEM), and a hindcasting model based on population density. Model outputs were validated using present-day total phosphorus (TP) concentrations and a Holocene TP time series derived from dated floodplain sediments.Results indicate that land cover change alone may have triggered eutrophication as early as 2000 years ago, well before the widespread use of mineral fertilizers. Erosion mobilized P naturally present in soils and concentrated by human activity. Both the EC and WaTEM/SEDEM models suggest that historical exceedances of the freshwater TP threshold (140 μg L-1) have occurred, with critical land cover thresholds ranging from 17% to 46%. Population-based estimates indicate this threshold was crossed around 300 years ago at ∼56 inhabitants km-2. Predicted pristine TP concentrations ranged from 6 [95% CI: 4–8] μg L-1 (WaTEM/SEDEM) to 35 [18–124] μg L-1 (EC), while sediment records suggest 48 μg L-1. The intricate link between water quality, land use change, and human population dynamics is crucial to consider for effective future water quality management.

While the introduction of the Neolithic way of life in central Belgium around 5300 BCE is well-documented, the provenance and mobility patterns of Middle to Final Neolithic groups in southern Belgium (Wallonia) remain unclear. This work presents the first multi-element isotopic (strontium, 87Sr/86Sr; oxygen, δ18O; carbon, δ13C) data from prehistoric human dental enamel from the region. The study includes a total of 29 individuals, coming from karstic caves in the Meuse basin, the mining complex of Spiennes, and the megalithic tomb of Wéris II. The study also explores the variability of bioavailable strontium ratios in the geologically heterogeneous Meuse basin using modern plants. The analysis of multi-element isotopic data reveals high δ18O values and diverse 87Sr/86Sr ratios. The findings suggest that these individuals likely originated from or spent their childhood in present-day Belgium. Furthermore, the study highlights limited mobility during the Final Neolithic period, characterized by a combination of local residency and potential short-distance mobility or post-mortem movements. Overall, this study provides the first δ18O values from ancient human remains in the region and reshapes our understanding of human mobility during the Neolithic in present-day Belgium.

Throughout prehistory, humans inhabited the Scheldt basin in northern Belgium, though few prehistoric human remains have been found there compared to the Meuse basin, where many caves contain human remains from various prehistoric phases. The poor preservation in the area is due to the region’s high soil acidity, decalcification, and dryness, which degrade bones. Until now, little effort had been made to identify human remains in the Scheldt basin.This paper documents human remains from six prehistoric sites and explores their radiocarbon dates to better understand the region’s occupation history. The scarcity of remains prior to the Neolithic is attributed to diagenetic processes, and a lack of Late Neolithic remains might indicate a population decline, though flint mines and Meuse basin burials suggest otherwise. Another possibility is a shift in burial practices towards collective burials in megaliths or caves, unsuitable for the wet floodplains of the Scheldt basin.Most bones from the Scheldt basin were found in secondary contexts, likely through fluvial activity. They were retrieved from former river channels and gullies, complicating interpretations of whether they originated from primary inhumation graves or from secondary burials. The absence of defleshing marks suggests the bones were not part of secondary burials, pointing instead to the erosion of primary graves from earlier settlements. Settlement debris, including pottery and stone tools, supports this theory.

In this paper, a synthesis is given of a large multi-disciplinary project, which included physical, botanical, zoological and archaeological studies, accelerator mass spectrometer from numerous locations in and along the extensive Moervaart palaeolake (NW Belgium), south of the Maldegem-Stekene Coversand Ridge. This rich dataset enabled a detailed reconstruction of climate, vegetation development and human presence in the period from the Weichselian Lateglacial and early Holocene. In addition, this dataset was used to make spatial reconstructions of the vegetation patterns in the direct surroundings of the Moervaart palaeolake for seven time slices and artist impressions for three moments in the archaeological record. These vegetation maps and the high resolution data on climate and the abiotic landscape are compared to former human occupation patterns to give insight in these early human presences in NW Europe. The first evidence for human presence, after a long period of absence, was found from the Allered period. During this period, hunter-gatherers of the Federmesser culture were present in encampments along the northern shore of the Moervaart palaeolake which had developed during the Belling period. Both the improving climate and the availability of a fresh water source stimulated human presence. The vegetation transitioned from a tundra landscape in the Belling period to a boreal forest with birch and pine in the Allered. During the following cold period of the Younger Dryas, forests retreated and tundra vegetation redeveloped. At the same time, the Moervaart palaeolake and most of the surrounding dune ponds turned dry. Evidence of human presence in the region during the Younger Dryas period is scarce, presumably related to the colder climatic conditions and the strongly reduced availability of fresh water sources. Due to climate warming during the early Holocene, boreal forests expanded again. However, evidence of human occupation of the area remains scarce. The Preboreal forest expansion was shortly interrupted by another cold reversal, the so-called Preboreal Oscillation or 11.4 event. After this event, hunter-gatherers returned to the area, then settling preferably along the dry banks of the Kale/Durme river, a tributary of the Scheldt river, which was the only source of fresh water in the region. During the following Boreal, coniferous forests were gradually replaced by deciduous forests which had developed initially with hazel, elm and oak, but later (Atlantic) also with lime, alder and ash. Hunter-gatherer site-density was highest during the first part of the Boreal, when hazel dominated the landscape. Afterwards, site-density dropped considerably; however, it is not clear whether this reflects a marked population reduction or rather points to changing mobility in response to a changing environment.

Highlights: investigating pyrogenic magnetism can support identifying Mesolithic land use traces, laboratory magnetometers can facilitate soil characterisation for archaeological applications

Lithic tools are the most abundant cultural artefacts found at prehistoric archaeological sites. Through their study, we can understand essential activities such as hunting, processing of animal carcasses and plant materials, and working of resources such as ochre and bone, as well as broader technological and cultural practices. For the first time, proteomics was applied alongside use-wear and optical microscopy residue analyses, enabling the identification of bovine, plant, and human proteins on faceted tools from the Mesolithic-Neolithic site of Bazel-Sluis, Belgium. This retrieval of identifiable protein from an area with poor organic preservation demonstrates wide-reaching potential for archaeological research, opening a new avenue of investigation into prehistoric lifeways and adding to the growing corpus of evidence accessible through palaeoproteomics. A workflow for future analyses is suggested, based on our integrated sampling strategy requiring no additional tool manipulations. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest. Ghent University, https://ror.org/00cv9y106, BOF.GOA.2022.0002.03, BOF.GOA.2022.0002.02 European Research Council, 639286, HIDDEN FOODS

The European Final Palaeolithic witnessed marked changes in almost all societal domains. Despite a rich body of evidence, our knowledge of human palaeodemographic processes and regional population dynamics still needs to be improved. In this study, we present regionally differentiated population estimates for the Greenland Interstadial 1d-a (GI-1d-a; 14-12.7 ka cal BP) and the Greenland Stadial 1 (GS-1; 12.7-11.6 ka cal BP) for Southern, Western, Northern and Central Europe. The data were obtained by applying the Cologne Protocol, a geostatistical approach for estimating prehistoric population size and density, to a newly compiled dataset of Final Palaeolithic sites. On a large spatio-temporal scale and compared to preceding Upper Palaeolithic phases, areas north of the Alps become the dominant demographic growth area for the first time since the dispersal of anatomically modern humans into Europe. At smaller scales, we observe divergent regional trends, with a conspicuous lack of archaeological evidence appearing in previously occupied areas of central France and Germany. Our study also shows that during the Final Palaeolithic, the climatic cooling of GS-1 coincides with a pronounced population decline in most parts of the study area. An apparent increase in population density occurs only in north-eastern Central Europe and north-eastern Italy. Our estimates suggest that the total population was reduced by half. Similar results, with a relationship between decreasing temperatures and decreasing populations, have already been observed for the late phase of the Gravettian, when populations were reduced to only one third of those estimated for the early phase. Yet, in contrast to the collapse of local populations during the late Gravettian, the increase in population densities in Central Europe during GS-1 indicates population movements eastwards, possibly in response to deteriorating climatic conditions, particularly in western regions during the Younger Dryas.

Abstract This chapter concerns the Mesolithic of a vast and highly diverse geographical area extending from the Pyrenees in the south of France to the North Sea coast of Belgium and the Netherlands. Because of this, it not only encompasses the Sauveterrian, but also parts of the Beuronian and Maglemosian cultural spheres. Typochronological data generally allows to divide the Mesolithic of this area in an Early and a Late stage, or in a Premier and Second Mésolithique. An exception is the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt area, where a Middle Mesolithic, characterized by the sudden appearance of microliths with flat retouch, is lodged in between this bipartite scheme. Regional geography and taphonomic settings heavily influenced research history and research focus in the different subregions that are addressed in this chapter. In southern France and the Belgian Meuse valley, information, for example, originates primarily from caves and rock shelters that offered rich faunal assemblages as well as extensive information on the diverse burial rites of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. Conversely, in other areas, where large-scale open-air excavations are the rule, more information is available on settlement organization and settlement structures. Next to hearth features, artefact clusters, and possible post-hole configurations, the latter also consist of pit-features that are often found on the fringes—or completely outside—of traditional settlement terrains, such as the remarkable pit alignments from the Paris Basin and the many ‘pit-hearths’ of the northern Netherlands.

In this paper the results of a detailed technological analysis of the lithic industry of OE udeghien (Belgium) are presented. The site is interpreted as a specialized flint knapping workshop focused on the production of regular (Montbani)blades in a non-local, good-quality flint intended for transport. Although technologically aligning with the Essart knapping method, typical of the Late Mesolithic in western Europe, the studied assemblage presents unique characteristics, which might point to the existence of regional and/or chronological differences. One such feature is the frequent use of the edge of massive flakes as debitage front. While this method was already in use incidentally from the start of the Mesolithic, it looks as if it became a general practice in the Late Mesolithic. Interestingly the same method, albeit with other objectives, is also observed within early farmer-herder assemblages from the nearby LBK Culture, hinting at possible transmission of technological knowledge between both communities.

Abstract The Mesolithic corresponds to a period of abrupt global warming resulting in a series of profound environmental changes, such as rapid sea level rise, decreased river discharge and lake levels, increased drought and forest fires, and a radical overturn of both fauna and flora. The latter includes the rapid replacement of cold-tolerant species occurring in an open tundra environment by temperate-boreal species, adapted to the forested environment of the Early and Middle Holocene. However, global warming was repeatedly interrupted by short but abrupt cooling events, the impact of which on both ecosystems and humans remains largely unexplored.

The derivation of nutrient limits in freshwater needs information on the natural background of these nutrients. This study uses floodplain sediment P concentrations to identify human impact over the past 7,500 years and to infer the pristine P concentrations in sediment and water. Floodplain sediment cores from three sites in the lowland Dijle river catchment (BE) were analysed and radiocarbon dated. The sediment degree of P saturation (DPS) and oxalate extractable P (Pox)were correlated with two proxies of human activity: archaeological site count index (SCI) and pollen signal-based human impact (HI). In addition, sediment DPS was related to total dissolved P (TDP) concentrations in the water, calibrated with present-day data. Significant positive correlations (p < 0.001) were found among the three proxies across the sites between 4,500-1,500 Before Present (BP). After 1,500 BP the SCI increased exponentially, the DPS increased as well, but starting from 500 BP, it decreased towards 150 BP, to peak in most recent times. The impact of pre-and early complex societies on sediment DPS was small until 2,000 BP. During the Roman Period (ca. 2000-1500 BP), an increase in DPS indicated cultural eutrophication, coinciding with vegetation change and a rise in archaeological site density. The estimated pristine TDP concentration in the river was 28 g TDP/L [95 % CI: 24; 42], an order below current concentrations. Upland peats in the headwaters likely had TDP concentrations < 10 g TDP/L. This study illustrated the potential of floodplain sediment P analysis to estimate human impact and natural background P concentrations at a catchment scale. However, DPS should not be used as a proxy for human activity in organic layers where organic P dominates extractable P in the sediment.

The European Final Palaeolithic witnessed marked changes in almost all societal domains. Despite a rich body of evidence, our knowledge of palaeodemographic processes and regional population dynamics still needs to be improved. In this study, we present regionally differentiated estimates of absolute numbers and population densities for the Greenland Interstadial 1d-a (GI-1d-a; 14-12.7 ka BP) and the Greenland Stadial 1 (GS-1; 12.7-11.6 ka BP) for Southern, Western, Northern and Central Europe. The data were obtained by applying the Cologne Protocol, a geostatistical approach for estimating prehistoric population size and density, to a newly compiled dataset of Final Palaeolithic sites. On a large spatio-temporal scale, we observe a shift of the main areas of human occupation from the Franco-Cantabrian region, which was intensely occupied during most phases of the preceding Upper Palaeolithic, to regions north of the Alps. At smaller scales, we observe divergent regional trends in the Final Palaeolithic meta-population: during GI 1d-a, a decreasing population in southwestern Europe and an increasing population in north-eastern Central Europe. For the first time since the dispersal of anatomically modern humans into Europe, we see that Central Europe becomes the dominant demographic growth area. Subsequently, the climatic cooling of GS-1 coincides with a pronounced population decline in most parts of the study area. An apparent increase in population density occurs only in north-eastern Central Europe and north-eastern Italy. Our estimates suggest that the total population was reduced by half. Similar results, with a relationship between decreasing temperatures and decreasing populations, have already been observed for the late phase of the Gravettian, when populations were reduced to only one third of those estimated for the early phase. Yet, in contrast to the collapse of local populations during the late Gravettian, the increase in population densities in Central Europe during GS-1 indicates population movements eastwards, possibly in response to deteriorating climatic conditions, particularly in western regions during the Younger Dryas. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

Archaeological systematics, together with spatial and chronological information, are commonly used to infer cultural evolutionary dynamics in the past. For the study of the Palaeolithic, and particularly the European Final Palaeolithic and earliest Mesolithic, proposed changes in material culture are often interpreted as reflecting historical processes, migration, or cultural adaptation to climate change and resource availability. Yet, cultural taxonomic practice is known to be variable across research history and academic traditions, and few large-scale replicable analyses across such traditions have been undertaken. Drawing on recent developments in computational archaeology, we here present a data-driven assessment of the existing Final Palaeolithic/earliest Mesolithic cultural taxonomy in Europe. Our dataset consists of a large expert-sourced compendium of key sites, lithic toolkit composition, blade and bladelet production technology, as well as lithic armatures. The dataset comprises 16 regions and 86 individually named archaeological taxa (‘cultures’), covering the period between ca. 15,000 and 11,000 years ago (cal BP). Using these data, we use geometric morphometric and multivariate statistical techniques to explore to what extent the dynamics observed in different lithic data domains (toolkits, technologies, armature shapes) correspond to each other and to the culture-historical relations of taxonomic units implied by traditional naming practice. Our analyses support the widespread conception that some dimensions of material culture became more diverse towards the end of the Pleistocene and the very beginning of the Holocene. At the same time, cultural taxonomic unit coherence and efficacy appear variable, leading us to explore potential biases introduced by regional research traditions, inter-analyst variation, and the role of disjunct macroevolutionary processes. In discussing the implications of these findings for narratives of cultural change and diversification across the Pleistocene-Holocene transition, we emphasize the increasing need for cooperative research and systematic archaeological analyses that reach across research traditions.

The Holocene evolution of vegetation and environment in the Kleine Nete valley in the coversand region of northeastern Belgium is studied through sedimentological, palynological and macrobotanical analysis of a radiocarbon dated peat sequence. Peat formation started at the beginning of the Holocene in mesotrophic fen conditions. After a period of fast peat growth, the accumulation slowed down and the peat surface became dry in the Middle Holocene.The palynological results are compared with other pollen data from the region, in order to establish a regional pollen biozonation for the Early and Middle Holocene in the Nete Basin. This shows that pine has long been a characteristic element in the Nete Basin. Pine forest expanded immediately after the 11.4 cold event, which is earlier than in the western Scheldt Basin. Pine and birch grew along the valley, possibly also within the peatland. Peaks of microcharcoal, herbs and/or coarse sediment in the peat reflect temporary local forest disturbances in the Early Holocene. Some may reflect small-scale controlled fires induced by hunter-gatherers, although a natural cause seems much more plausible given the dominance of fire-associated pines and increased drought. Pine remained important throughout the Early Holocene. This long-lasting predominance of pine in the Nete Basin, compared to elsewhere in the Scheldt Basin, is likely related to the poor sandy subsoil in the region, which hinders more nutrient-demanding broadleaf trees to overtake.

This study presents a multiproxy palaeodemographic perspective by combining radiocarbon dates with counts of archaeological site phases in the western Scheldt basin, spanning from the beginning of the Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The results were assessed critically, accounting for differences in research methodology, soil conditions and changes in building traditions. The results indicate a dynamic region characterized by almost continual growth. Moreover, two distinct sub-regions of the basin could be compared, thereby elucidating the sub-regional differences. It is clear that palaeodemographic studies are only feasible when a multiproxy analysis is used on a detailed, highly scrutinized dataset.

Currently in NW Europe little is known about the human response to the extensive cold reversal at the end of the Pleistocene, the Younger Dryas (ca. 12,850 till ca. 11,650 cal BP), mainly due to the poor chronological resolution of the archaeological sites belonging to the Ahrensburgian Culture. Here we present a series of 33 radiocarbon dates performed on the seminal cave site of Remouchamps, situated in the Belgian Meuse basin. Combined with a revision of the available radiocarbon evidence along the southern North Sea basin (Belgium, southern Netherlands, western Germany), it is suggested that the first half of the Younger Dryas, characterized as extremely cold and wet, faced a significant population reduction. Repopulation started around the middle of the Younger Dryas, from ca. 12,200 cal BP onward, probably in response to a slight climatic improvement leading to somewhat warmer summers. This might be considered a prelude to the subsequent population boost of the Early Holocene (Mesolithic).

A high-resolution palynological record from northwest Belgium is presented. The record encompasses the second part of the Younger Dryas and the Early Holocene. The basal part of the pollen record reflects a relatively open landscape, characteristic for the Younger Dryas. The transition to the Holocene is marked by an expansion of birch woodland, followed by an expansion of pine in the Late Preboreal (similar to 11.2-10.7 cal. ka BP). Subsequently, the record shows an expansion of mixed deciduous forest with hazel, elm and oak, characteristic for the Boreal (similar to 10.7-8.6 cal. ka BP). Early Holocene forest expansion was interrupted by a number of short-lived fluctuations, presumably driven by climatic changes. The most distinct event is the Rammelbeek phase (similar to 11.4-11.2 cal. ka BP), during which forest development was temporarily interrupted in favour of grasses, while wildfires increased. Following this climatic event, hunter-gatherers returned to the area after a period of almost 1.5 millennia of low population density. They most likely were attracted by the increased temperatures and abundance of edible plants present in the birch-pine forests and on the banks of the river Kale/Durme. A temporary expansion of pine during the Boreal (similar to 10.7-8.6 cal. ka BP) may correspond with the 9.3-ka event. At this time, superimposed on a trend of gradual infilling of the channel, a temporary change to drier conditions is observed. The significant drop in the number of prehistoric sites in the Moervaart region clearly cannot be attributed to this short-term climatic event alone but was most likely caused by a combination of environmental changes, such as the decreasing availability of hazelnuts as well as freshwater and edible (semi-)aquatic plants as the Kale/Durme river gradually turned dry. The study provides insight into, partly climate-driven, Early Holocene environmental changes and the effect this may have had on human occupation.

This study represents the first extensive residue analysis of prehistoric pottery from northern Belgium. It examines pottery use and culinary practices across the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition, from the late 6th to the early 4th millennium cal BC. Residue analyses were performed on more than 200 samples from nine archaeological sites, representing different cultural groups from this transitional phase. This includes the analysis of charred food residues encrusted on the vessel surfaces by elemental analysis-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (EA-IRMS), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), stereomicroscopic analysis and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), as well as the analysis of absorbed lipids by gas chromatography-combustion-isotope ratio mass spectrometry (GC-C-IRMS). This study provides the first evidence of ruminant dairy fats in Early Neolithic Limburg pottery, supporting the hypothesis that this pottery was produced and used by LBK farmers rather than hunter-gatherer populations. The first indigenous pottery of the Swifterbant culture was frequently used to process freshwater fish (often together with plant foods) and ruminant meat, although several of the studied vessels likely contained mixtures of resources which could also include porcine products. Ruminant dairy is nearly absent from this pottery. Similar results were obtained for pottery of the subsequent Michelsberg culture/Group of Spiere of the late 5th and early 4th millennium cal BC. The limited presence of ruminant dairy fats in this pottery contrasts with the findings for Middle Neolithic pottery from neighbouring regions, providing further evidence for the existence of regional variations in pottery use or culinary practices throughout prehistoric NW Europe. However, our current view of pottery use during the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in northern Belgium might be biased by the difficulties in distinguishing between wild and domesticated ruminant adipose fats as well as in detecting plant foods through lipid residue analysis.

This paper discusses the results of a detailed analysis of the lithic assemblages from four key sites in the Lower-Scheldt basin of NW Belgium in the context of the Neolithization process beyond the agro-pastoral frontier of the European loess area. The study demonstrates both continuity and change in raw material use, lithic technology and the toolkit throughout the 5th and early 4th millennium cal BC, supporting the theory of acculturation of indigenous hunter-gatherers under the influence of southern farming groups.