Background Food systems contribute to environmental degradation and diet-related diseases. While numerous dietary recommendations exist, systematic quantification of trade-offs between health and environmental objectives remains limited, particularly in France, where no such optimization study has been conducted. Methods We applied multi-criteria optimization to map the Pareto front between health risk (based on Global Burden of Disease targets) and environmental pressures (greenhouse gas emissions, water use, land occupation, pesticide use, ecological infrastructure, and energy demand). We identified optimal diets under varying acceptability constraints that limit deviations from current dietary patterns. Baseline data were from 29,413 NutriNet-Santé cohort participants (France, 2014). Findings The Pareto front reveals both substantial co-benefits and conflicts between health and environmental objectives. One optimal solution with relaxed acceptability constraints features 700g fruits/vegetables daily, 60g pulses, 290g whole grains, 350 mL milk and 70g other dairy daily, up to 35g poultry weekly and 250g fish weekly. Compared to baseline, this diet improves health score by 145% while reducing overall environmental pressures by 18%, with decreases of 73% (GHG emissions), 59% (land occupation), 55% (energy demand), 79% (pesticide use), and 6% (water use). The proportion of organic food increases by 161% and costs remain stable (±3%). However, ecological infrastructure decreased by 47%, revealing trade-offs between biodiversity preservation and other environmental goals. Conclusions This first comprehensive analysis for France systematically quantifies health-environment trade-offs, revealing where objectives align and conflict, thereby providing evidence to inform public policies balancing human and planetary health. Despite substantial dietary changes, these diets remain feasible and affordable. Trial registration The NutriNet-Sante cohort is registered at clinicaltrials.gov (NCT03335644).

Tap water contamination by agricultural pesticide residues is widespread, but exposure characteristics and potential health effects remain understudied. This study aimed to identify tap water consumption-based pesticide exposure profiles.Pesticide exposure was estimated in a subsample (n = 17,833; median age 63.1y (IQR: 55.6-71.6); 66% women) of the French NutriNet-Santé cohort by linking food frequency questionnaire water consumption data in 2022 to French tap water monitoring data (SISE-Eaux) by municipality in 2022. Exposure profiles were derived using Non-negative Matrix Factorization on lower-bound exposure estimates followed by two-step clustering. Clusters were characterized by pesticide exposure, sociodemographic characteristics, place of residence, and water consumption.Pesticide residues were quantified in 1.1% of SISE-Eaux analyses, with 0.1% exceeding regulatory limits. Approximately one-fifth of the French population has been served by tap water exceeding at least once the regulatory limit. For exposure profile analysis, 27 substances were retained. Six clusters were identified. Cluster 1 (6.7%) showed no quantified exposure, cluster 2 (71.4%) had relatively low exposure, and cluster 3 (16.8%) had moderate exposure to the substances studied. Clusters 4 (3.5%) and 5 (1.4%) were relatively highly exposed to triazines and flufenacet and to choroacetamides and their metabolites, respectively. Finally, cluster 6 (0.1%) had the highest exposure across clusters, particularly to the metabolites of metolachlor and alachlor. Higher exposed clusters lived mainly in rural northern France areas.Most groups showed relatively low exposure relative to the overall sample average, while some regions exhibited higher contamination. Further studies should examine health effects of contaminated tap water alongside other sources.

Meat reduction is central to achieving climate targets. Here, using the transtheoretical model, we assessed readiness to reduce meat consumption in 2018 and diet-related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2014 and 2018 among 13,635 French adults. Individuals in advanced stages of meat reduction in 2018 decreased GHG emissions between 2014 and 2018, mainly through reducing ruminant meat, with smaller decreases in pork and poultry. Despite these changes, GHG emissions remained above national targets, indicating that current efforts are insufficient to achieve climate goals.

OBJECTIVE:Dietary diversity is associated with health benefits. However, food biodiversity has been understudied. Therefore, we aim to evaluate the associations between dietary species richness (DSR), i.e. the number of species consumed by individuals, and dietary sustainability dimensions, including environmental pressures, diet quality and monetary cost. SETTING:The study was carried out among the NutriNet-Santé cohort. PARTICIPANTS:29 173 volunteers were included. DESIGN:Participants completed a 264-item FFQ. Food items were linked to the corresponding species. ANCOVA models were fitted to evaluate the associations between total, plant, animal DSR and dietary sustainability dimensions. The dietary share of organic food was computed. RESULTS:Higher DSR was associated with lower overall environment impact, captured by the pRecipe, an indicator including greenhouse gases emissions, land occupation and cumulative energy demand (pRecipe, Q5 v. Q1, -8·5 %), better diet quality, reflected by the level of adherence to the French dietary guidelines (sPNNS-GS2, Q5 v. Q1: +44·8 %) and stable dietary cost. Higher plant DSR was related to lower environmental impacts, better diet quality and higher monetary cost. Higher animal DSR was associated with higher environmental pressures, lower diet quality and monetary cost. The amount of organic food consumed was positively associated with plant DSR and negatively associated with animal DSR. CONCLUSIONS:Overall, more biodiverse diets were related to better diet quality and lower environmental pressures. The associations seemed to be driven by plant biodiversity. Further studies are warranted to better understand the relationship between food biodiversity and sustainability dimensions across settings.

The out-of-home (OOH) food sector holds the potential to promote healthier and more sustainable diets on a large scale given the high number of people eating OOH regularly. However, information about socioeconomic and dietary characteristics of OOH eaters is limited. This study aimed to identify a typology of OOH consumers by frequency and type of meal consumed OOH and their associated sociodemographic, lifestyle, nutritional, and environmental characteristics. Based on a sub-sample of adults of the French NutriNet-Santé cohort who completed a food frequency questionnaire and a questionnaire on OOH consumption habits in 2014 (n = 29,140, mean age: 53.6 (SD = 14.0) years, 74.3

Dietary patterns significantly impact climate change and morbidity, making transitions to sustainable diets urgent. Few studies explore repeated dietary measures collected over several years or variations across distinct consumer profiles characterized by sociodemographic and dietary patterns. Our study aims to identify dietary trajectory profiles in French adults (2014–2022), assessing environmental, nutritional, and health outcomes. Consumption data from 17,187 NutriNet-Santé cohort participants (52 https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT03335644?id=NCT03335644 rank=1 • Six distinct profiles of 8y-dietary trajectories were identified, characterized by specific starting diets and subsequent evolution. • With varying magnitude, GHG emissions decreased (−5

Background:Plant-based diets offer co-benefits for human health and the environment, but assessments often consider only specific aspects. This study comprehensively examines the links between diet-related environmental pressures and risk of chronic diseases as well as mortality. Methods:Data from a population study of 34,077 participants to the NutriNet-Santé French cohort were used. Dietary data were collected using a food frequency questionnaire, distinguishing between organic and conventional foods, and were merged with food production environmental indicators. The associations between greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe), energy demand, land occupation (LO), ecological infrastructures (EI), water use, and pesticide treatment frequency and a synthetic environmental pressures index (EPI) and incidence of cancer, cardiovascular diseases (overall, coronary and cerebrovascular diseases), type 2 diabetes and mortality were estimated using weighted multivariable cox proportional risk model. Findings:Over a mean median follow-up of 8.39 years (IQR = 5.62, 256,891 person-year), the diet's overall environmental pressures (EPI) was positively associated with the risk of all tested chronic diseases except stroke. The HR for 1 SD increment ranging from 1.15 (95% CI = 1.03-1.28) for cancer (all locations) to 1.50 (95% CI = 1.29-1.73) for coronary heart disease and type 2 diabetes, but no association with stroke or death was detected. Interpretation:Diets with low overall environmental pressures are associated with important health benefits, suggesting that food systems with lower environmental impacts could be key drivers of both environmental and health sustainability. Funding:Data were collected in the context of the BioNutriNet and TRANSFood projects supported by the French National Research Agency (ANR-13-ALID-0001 and ANR-21-CE21-0011-01).

Although food-based dietary guidelines (FBDG) include guidelines for meat consumption, they most often do not explicitly include environmental considerations. For instance, in France, FBDG recommend consuming no more than 500 g of red meat and 150 g of processed meat per week. This study uses modeling to investigate the range of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe) that can be achieved under FBDG compliance. The study analyzed data collected in 2014 from 29,413 NutriNet-Santé participants to assess their adherence to the French FBDG. GHGe, cumulative energy demand (CED), and land occupation (LO) for organic and conventional foods were obtained from the DIALECTE database. First, diets adequate in nutrients, culturally acceptable, and consistent with FBDG were modeled while minimizing or maximizing GHGe. Then, the spectrum of diets between minimum and maximum GHGe was explored while minimizing total departure from the observed diet with a gradual constraint on GHGE using the same other constraints. Environmental, economic (monetary cost), nutritional, and health criteria (Health risk score denoting long-term risk for health associated with diet) were then estimated for each diet. The average observed adequacy to FBDG was low (19

BACKGROUND:In 2019, the EAT-Lancet Commission proposed a planetary, healthy, and reference diet, designed to reduce the global health-environmental double burden of current dietary patterns. We aim to investigate the association between the EAT-Lancet reference diet and type 2 diabetes (T2D) risk. METHODS:This observational and prospective web-based study was conducted using data from 88 964 adults participating to the French NutriNet-Santé cohort 2009-22 (78.8% female; mean (SD) baseline age of participants was 43.8 (14.5) years). Dietary intakes were assessed at least by three repeated 24 hour-dietary records (mean = 6.3 (2.8)). The endpoint was incident T2D. The main exposure was the EAT-Lancet diet index (ELD-I) modeled as a continuous variable and sex-specific quintiles (Qs). Hazard ratios (HRs) and confidence intervals (CIs) were assessed by Cox proportional hazards models adjusted for potential confounders. The body mass index (BMI) role as a potential mediating factor in the relationship was also investigated. RESULTS:During follow-up (median = 8.79 years), 812 incident T2D cases occurred. The ELD-I ranged from -192 to 429 points with a median (interquartile range [IQR]) score of 42.8 (29.1) points. For each 25.7-point increase in ELD-I score (1SD), the risk of T2D is reduced by 11% (HR1SD: 0.89; 95% CI: 0.82-0.96; P = .003). The association studied was mediated up to 61% by BMI. CONCLUSIONS:In this large cohort study, an increase in adherence to the EAT-Lancet reference diet was associated with a decreased risk of T2D beyond BMI. These results support previous findings and highlights the interest of the EAT-Lancet reference diet as a healthy and sustainable diet.

Few studies have explored individual diet-related environmental pressure changes, beyond greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe) and land occupation (LO). This study evaluates the trajectories in several environmental impacts of diets among 8,905 French adults from the NutriNet-Santé cohort, who completed food frequency questionnaires (distinguishing organic vs. conventional foods) in 2014, 2018, and 2022. Six environmental indicators-GHGe, LO, energy demand, ecological infrastructure use, water use, and pesticide use-were estimated at the farm perimeter using a multi-source approach. Latent class models identified trajectories for a composite environmental pressure index (EPI) and each indicator, and mixed models adjusted for energy intake and sex modeled the trajectories. On average, most environmental pressures decreased over time (e.g., GHGe by -12%, water use by -1%), indicating a general improvement. However, ecological infrastructure also declined (-9%), which represents a negative outcome as it is linked to biodiversity. Two to four trajectory profiles were identified per indicator, with most individuals showing stable or modestly decreasing trends. Four EPI trajectories emerged: increasing EPI profiles were associated with higher meat consumption, whereas decreasing EPI reflected shifts toward more plant-based diets. Despite potential awareness of the importance of sustainable diets, this study reveals that most individuals show moderate improvements in their diet-related environmental pressures, with only a very small fraction showing important decreases.

BACKGROUND:Obesity has emerged as a significant public health issue globally. In response to the dual health and environmental challenges posed by dietary patterns, the EAT-Lancet Commission recommended a planetary health diet that promotes well-being. OBJECTIVES:This study aimed to investigate the association of the EAT-Lancet reference diet with body weight (BW) changes, incidences of overweight [body mass index (BMI) ≥25 kg/m2], and obesity (BMI ≥30 kg/m2), in a large French cohort. METHODS:The study analyzed data from 51,711 adults who participated in the French NutriNet-Santé cohort between 2009 and 2023. Exposure was measured by the level of adherence to the EAT-Lancet reference diet, evaluated through the EAT-Lancet Diet Index (ELD-I), categorized into sex-specific quintiles (Qs), and as a continuous variable. The relationship between ELD-I and changes in BW was examined using multivariable linear mixed models. For the incidences of overweight and obesity, multivariable Cox proportional hazards models were employed. RESULTS:During follow-up (median = 8.7 y), 4250 and 1604 persons became overweight and obese, respectively. We observed an inverse association between the level of ELD-I and gain in BW (in kg) [βQ5 × time = -0.18; 95% confidence interval (CI): -0.20, -0.16; P < 0.0001]. Higher level of ELD-I was associated with lower risks of reaching overweight [hazard ratio (HR)Q5 compared with Q1: 0.60; 95% CI: 0.54, 0.66; P-trend<0.0001] and obesity status (HRQ5 compared with Q1: 0·54; 95% CI: 0.45, 0.63; p-trend <0.0001) during follow-up. CONCLUSIONS:This comprehensive prospective observational study revealed that a stronger adherence to the EAT-Lancet reference diet is associated with lower BW and reduced risks of overweight and obesity. Promoting a sustainable plant-based diet seems to be an effective strategy for addressing the global public health challenge of obesity. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03335644.

BACKGROUND:Pesticides cause a wide range of deleterious health effects, including metabolic disorders. Little is known about the effects of dietary pesticide exposure on body weight (BW) change in the general population. We aimed to investigate the role of dietary pesticide exposure in BW change among NutriNet-Santé participants, focusing on potential sexual dimorphism. METHODS:Participants completed a Food Frequency Questionnaire (2014), assessing conventional and organic food consumption. Dietary exposure from plant foods of 25 commonly used pesticides was estimated using a residue database, accounting for agricultural practices (conventional and organic). Exposure profiles based on dietary patterns were computed using Non-negative Matrix Factorization (NMF). Mixed models were used to estimate the associations between BW change and exposure to pesticide mixtures, overall and after stratification by sex and menopausal status. RESULTS:The final sample included 32,062 participants (8,211 men, 10,637 premenopausal, and 13,214 postmenopausal women). The median (IQR) follow-up was 7.0 (4.4; 8.0) years. Four pesticides profiles were inferred. Overall, men and postmenopausal women lost BW during follow-up, whereas premenopausal women gained BW. Higher exposure to NMF3, reflecting a lower exposure to synthetic pesticides, was associated with a lower BW gain, especially in premenopausal women (β(95 %CI) = -0.04 (-0.07; 0) kg/year, p = 0.04). Higher exposure to NMF2, highly positively correlated with a mixture of synthetic pesticides (azoxystrobin, boscalid, chlorpropham, cyprodinil, difenoconazole, fenhexamid, iprodione, tebuconazole, and lamda-cyhalothrin), was associated with a higher BW loss in men (β(95 %CI) = -0.05 (-0.08; -0.03) kg/year, p < 0.0001). No associations were observed for NMF1 and 4. CONCLUSIONS:This study suggests a role of pesticide exposure, inferred from dietary patterns, on BW change, with sexually dimorphic actions, including a potential role of a lower exposure to synthetic pesticides on BW change in women. In men, exposure to a specific pesticide mixture was associated with higher BW loss. The underlying mechanisms need further elucidation.

The potential of the EAT-Lancet reference diet, which promotes a healthy diet within planetary limits, to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe) remains understudied. This study examines the role of nutritional and acceptability constraints in reducing GHGe through diet optimization, and tests the alignment between GHGe reduction and the EAT-Lancet score.The study used data from 29,413 NutriNet-Santé participants to model French diets and evaluate their environmental, nutritional, economic, and health impact. The Organic Food Frequency Questionnaire was used to assess organic and conventional food consumed, and the Dialecte database was used to estimate the diet environmental impacts. Quality of diets were also evaluated based using the PNNS-GS2 (Programme National Nutrition-Santé 2 guidelines score).When testing minimizing GHGe under strict nutritional and acceptability constraints, it was possible to reduce GHGe up to 67 % (from 4.34 in the observed diet to GHGe = 1.45 kgeqCO2/d) while improving the EAT score by 103 % with 91 % of the food as organic. Greater reductions required relaxation of some constraints.When testing maximizing EAT score under gradual reduction in GHGe, the adherence to the EAT-Lancet diet was not significantly affected by the gradual reduction in GHGe. To maximize EAT score with 75 % reduction in GHGe (1.09 kgeqCO2/d), less strict constraints on the bioavailability of iron and zinc are necessary. The EAT score improved by 141 %, while land occupation decreased by 57 %, compared to the observed value. The diet contained 94 % of organic foods.There was some alignment between the degree of adherence to the EAT-Lancet diet and the reduction in GHGe, but other diets may also lead to a strong reduction in GHGe. Thus, GHGe can be greatly reduced by dietary choices, but require profound reshaping of diets which must be coupled with changes in other areas of the food chain.

Animal production is responsible for 56–58% of the GHG emissions and limiting meat consumption would strongly contribute to reducing human health risks in Western countries. This study aimed to investigate the nature of protein intake as a discriminating factor for diets’ sustainability. Using data from 29,210 French adults involved in the NutriNet-Santé cohort, we identified clusters according to 23 protein sources. A multicriteria (environmental, economic, nutritional and health) sustainability analysis was then conducted on the identified clusters. The economic analysis focused on both food and protein expenditure structures, using a budget coefficient approach. Relative values of clusters compared to the whole sample were calculated. We identified five clusters: milk-based, meat-based, fast food-based, healthy-fish-based, and healthy-plant-based. We found that the healthy-plant-based and healthy-fish-based clusters were the most sustainable, conciliating the compromise between human health (0.25 and 0.53 respectively for the Health Risk Score) and the protection of the environment (− 62% and − 19% respectively for the pReCiPe indicator). Conversely, the highest environmental impacts (+ 33% for the pReCiPe indicator) and the highest health risk (0.95 for the HRS) were observed for the meat-based cluster, which was associated with the lowest nutritional scores (− 61% for the PNNS-GS2 score). The economic analysis showed that the healthy-plant-based cluster was the one with the highest food budget coefficient (+ 46%), followed by the healthy-fish-based cluster (+ 8%), partly explained by a strong share of organic food in the diet. However, the meat-based cluster spent more of their food budget on their protein intake (+ 13%), while the healthy-plant-based cluster exhibited the lowest expenditure for this intake (− 41%). Our results demonstrate that the nature of protein intake is a discriminating factor in diet sustainability. Also, reducing animal protein consumption would generate co-benefits beyond environmental impacts, by being favorable for health, while reducing the monetary cost associated with protein intake.

AbstractThe Mediterranean diet is often proposed as a sustainable diet model. This study aimed to evaluate the associations between adherence to the Mediterranean diet and sustainability domains in a cohort of French adults, using multiple criteria including nutritional quality, environmental pressures, monetary cost and dietary pesticide exposure. Food intakes of 29 210 NutriNet-Santé volunteers were assessed in 2014 using a semi-quantitative FFQ. Adherence to the Mediterranean diet was evaluated using the validated literature-based adherence score (MEDI-LITE). The associations between the MEDI-LITE and various sustainability indicators were examined using ANCOVA models, adjusted for sex, age and energy intake. Higher adherence to the MEDI-LITE was associated with higher nutritional quality scores, better overall nutrient profile as well as reduced environmental impact (land occupation: Q5 v. Q1: −35 %, greenhouse gas emissions: −40 % and cumulative energy demand: −17 %). In turn, monetary cost increased with increasing adherence to the Mediterranean diet (Q5 v. Q1: +15 %), while higher adherents to the Mediterranean diet had overall higher pesticide exposure due to their high plant-based food consumption. In this large cohort of French adults, greater adherence to the Mediterranean diet was associated with nutritional and environmental benefits, but also with higher monetary cost and greater exposure to pesticides, illustrating the necessity to develop large-scale strategies for healthy, safe (pesticide- and contaminant-free) and environmentally sustainable diets for all.

Food systems face challenges from both their water and carbon footprints. Data suggest that it is possible to improve these both footprints simultaneously, but their potential conflicts and trade-offs have not been systematically explored. To this end, we here used a compromise programming approach to identify the dietary changes required to improve one and/or the other of these footprints, while ensuring nutritional adequacy and adherence to dietary guidelines, using French data on food consumption (1456 adults aged 18-64 years from the INCA 3 study) and food environmental impact (Agribalyse (R) database). A full range of scenarios was identified by prioritizing the two objectives differently, giving weight from 0 % to 100 %, by 5-% steps, to the improvement in greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe) over the improvement in blue water use (BWU). Overall, we have shown that it is possible to significantly reduce both BWU and GHGe compared to observed levels. The BWU reduction ranged from 14 % to 36 % with increasing prioritization, while the simultaneous GHGe reduction varied less, from 52 % to 44 % with decreasing prioritization. The consumption of some foods varied according to the priority given to BWU over GHGe reduction (namely, vegetables, fruit juice, dairy products, eggs, refined cereal, substitutes, offal and potatoes). In contrast, meat consumption (beef, pork, poultry and processed meat) was systematically removed, while the consumptions of offal and dairy products remained moderate in order to meet nutrient reference values. Fish, whole grains, and fruit also remained relatively constant across scenarios due to the constraints based on dietary guidelines. Whatever the scenario, the modeled diets were more plant-based than the observed diet from which they differed significantly (only 23-31 % of common food consumptions), and were therefore healthier (63-76 % reduction in the distance to theoretical minimum risk of chronic diseases).To conclude, while focusing solely on BWU reduction induces a joint GHGe reduction that is near-maximal, the reverse is not true, showing that there is good alignment but also some divergence between these objectives.

Background: In 2019, the EAT-Lancet Commission proposed a planetary and healthy reference diet; however, its nutritional quality has been rarely evaluated.Objective: Across different adherence levels to the EAT-Lancet reference diet, the following were our objectives:1) describe the food and nutritional intakes of the French population, 2) evaluate the nutrient quality, and 3) investigate the consistency between the French national recommendations and the EAT-Lancet reference diet. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted among participants of the NutriNet-Sante ⠁ cohort, and the sample was weighted on the characteristics of the general French population. Adherence to the EAT-Lancet reference diet was estimated using the EAT-Lancet Diet Index (ELD-I). Usual nutrient intakes were obtained using the variance reduction method. We used the estimated average requirements cut-point method to estimate the proportion of participants who meet their respective nutritional requirements. Furthermore, the adequacy of the French food-based dietary recommendations [Pro -gramme National Nutrition Sante ⠁ (PNNS)] according to adherence to the EAT-Lancet reference diet was studied. Results: The weighted sample was composed of 98,465 participants. Except for bioavailable zinc and vitamin B12, we observed a decrease in the nutrient inadequacy prevalence when the adherence to the EAT-Lancet reference diet increased, particularly for vitamin B9 (Q1 = 37.8% compared with Q5 = 5.5%, P < 0.0001) and vitamin C (Q1 = 59.0% compared with Q5 = 10.8 %, P < 0.0001). However, inadequacy prevalence remained high in all ELD-I quintiles, particularly for fiber (95.9%), vitamin B1 (70.8%), iodine (48.4%), and magnesium (76.8%). Higher ELD-I score was associated with higher adherence for most components of the PNNS, except for food groups that are not specifically included in the EAT-Lancet reference diet and are typical of the French diet, including alcohol, processed meat, and salt. Conclusion: In the French context, although issues with the intake of certain nutrients may occur, a diet that remains within the planetary limits as the EAT-Lancet reference diet allows a favorable nutritional quality.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03335644.

The imperative of carbon neutrality requires a drastic, rapid, and sustained reduction in fossil energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. The Russia-Ukraine war has led to a major energy crisis, whose end does not seem imminent. The sudden and major increase in energy prices resulting from this crisis has major impacts on many sectors of the societies. This is especially true for agriculture, a direct consumer of energy that also has considerable indirect consumption through the manufacture, transport, and distribution of chemical inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides. Taking the example of France, from July 2021 to July 2022, farmers were challenged with price increases as high as 48% and 111% for energy and fertilizers, respectively (Agreste, 2022). At the global scale, in 2018, greenhouse gas emissions from fossil energy consumption in agriculture represented 0.9 Pg CO2 eq. (against 9.3 Pg CO2 eq. due to agriculture, excluding emissions due to this energy consumption) and those emissions have increased by 23% since 2000 (FAO, 2020). This context calls for in-depth transformation of agriculture, which is currently overly dependent on non-renewable energy in high-income economies. While research on the subject continues to grow (Box 1), this large body of work focuses more on assessing the energy consumption of current agricultural systems using multiple metrics (Box 2) than on developing supply- or demand-side alternatives that use less energy. In response to these trends, Ramankutty and Dowlatabadi (2021) suggested pathways to sustainable food systems. However, while their recommendations included energy reduction options on the food consumption side, their focus on farming practices was restricted to improving the energy efficiency of current agricultural systems and missed the necessary redesign of farming and food systems. In this article, we look back to understand how agricultural systems came to progressively depend on non-renewable energy. We then briefly review agricultural practices and systems reducing energy consumption without compromising energy efficiency. Finally, we propose future research avenues to explore pathways for reducing energy consumption without compromising food security and sustainability challenges.