Seismic communication through infrasound occurs in both genera of extant proboscideans. Demonstrating its occurrence in extinct mammoths can rely on evidence from the body fossil record, trace fossil record and rock art record. Upper Palaeolithic rock art of mammoths in six western European caves suggests that the artists depicted mammoth communication through sound and probably through infrasound over a period of 20,000 years. Substantial correlations exist with the African rock art of elephants. The rock art record, buttressed by the fossil record, suggests that seismic communication among proboscideans was not confined to extant species but also existed in mammoths.

In the Kalahari San ethnographies of the 20(th) century, the kaross has often been associated with adult women and their work as mothers and gatherers. From around the 1970s the large skin cloak, made from the full skin of a big game antelope, was noticed to be of significance in many South African rock paintings that are associated with the Southern San of the past. The kaross has since become a point of reference in interpretations of imagery associated with shamanic experiences evoked by trance and altered states of consciousness as well as the possible representations of communal initiation rites of young hunters. In this paper we discuss a set of images from a rock shelter in the Western Cape that we suggest are renderings of the latter and we support the argument by outlining the cultural complexity and various uses of the kaross within traditional San hunter-gatherer communities. The kaross, understood to overcome the apparent separation between male and female spheres in ritual and daily life, imbued many meanings to different people-a realization that should be of consequence also when we aim to interpret its presence on the rock face.

The aardvark ( Oryecteropus afer ) is a fossorial species with a widespread distribution across sub-Saharan Africa. It leaves distinctive tracks and traces of its presence, including large burrows. However, despite a substantial body fossil record, few trace fossils registered by aardvarks have been described. Its distribution range in southern Africa during historic and prehistoric times was probably broadly similar to that of today, with the addition of the currently submerged Palaeo-Agulhas Plain during much of the Pleistocene. Five new trace fossil sites have been identified in Pleistocene aeolianites on the Cape coast and are here interpreted with varying degrees of confidence as large burrows that were made by aardvarks. In addition, a possible aardvark tracksite has been identified. Together these add to the sparse paleoichnological evidence of aardvarks and add to the global ichnological record of large vertebrate burrows. While at this point the evidence does not warrant the proposal of new ichnotaxa, the findings may act to spur further identification of fossilized traces of aardvarks and other fossorial species on the Cape coast and beyond.

San rock art depicting birds is generally identifiable to family level rather than species level. The San had a deep understanding of birds. Avian rock art interpretation is complicated by 'avianthropes', images that are part-human and part-bird. A rock art image in South Africa's Langeberg foothills is interpreted as an avianthropic African rail. This may be the oldest known depiction of this species, probably predating the 1773 holotype painting. An African rail may have been a subject of interest for a San artist. Appreciation of the San as accomplished ornithologists can inform modern ornithology and southern African rock art.

An association between round or oval features and linear features has been noted in South African Pleistocene coastal deposits, in apparent association with elephant tracks. The round or oval features sometimes exhibit concentric rings, and the latter often comprise near-parallel grooves and ridges. In one case the concentric rings and parallel grooves are closely connected. Such an association requires interpretation, even if this remains hypothetical until further sites are identified. Elephants are the heaviest extant land mammals, and their capacity to impart substantial forces onto the substrates on which they tread is well documented. Such forces include a seismic component, and seismic communication between elephants has received considerable attention in recent decades. Comparisons with dinosaur tracks are instructive in interpreting the available ichnological evidence. In the absence of plausible alternatives, the possibility that the noted features represent an ichnological signature of elephant seismicity or seismic communication needs to be considered. The rock art record in southern Africa suggests that ancestral humans were aware of elephant seismic communication. A comprehensive approach to elephant seismicity can involve not just research into the habits of extant elephants, but also the rock art record and the trace fossil record. To illustrate these concepts, findings from South African trace fossil sites and rock art sites are presented.

Scratch circles, previously defined as ‘bedding plane parallel sedimentary structures formed by the passive rotation of a tethered organism into the surrounding sediment’, have hitherto been identified in the geological record from the Ediacaran to the Paleocene, as well as in modern settings. They have not met the definition of trace fossils, being passively registered by a part of a plant. Several variations of scratch circle morphology have been identified in or on Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits on the Cape south coast of South Africa, allowing for an expansion of the scratch circle temporal range. Furthermore, these novel forms require a redefinition of the term ‘scratch circle’. Anthropogenic origins need to be considered for occurrences in the Pleistocene; guidelines to assist in distinguishing such causes from typical scratch circles are presented. Scratch circles may conceivably have inspired the creation of circular patterns (palaeo-art) in sand by Middle Stone Age hominins. Evaluation of scratch circles in snow allows for subtle features to be determined. A re-evaluation of what the term ‘trace fossil’ constitutes could be considered, in order to include the term palaeo-ichnobotany.

A purported cemented sand sculpture found in Pleistocene aeolianite deposits on the Cape south coast of South Africa resembles a stingray (minus a tail) in outline. Symmetry is evident in the rock’s shape and the pattern of grooves on its surface. It is postulated that it may be a three-dimensional example of representational art of another species. Optically stimulated luminescence studies of rocks in the vicinity indicate that it dates to the Middle Stone Age, most probably during Marine Isotope Stage 5 (when high sea levels imply a nearby coastline). The correspondence in shape between the purported sand sculpture and the blue stingray (Dasyatis chrysonota) suggests that it may have been traced from a fresh specimen. Tracings on sand are postulated as a possible ‘stepping stone’ between abstract early palaeoart and representational rock art. Features of the rock suggest that the creation of a stingray sand sculpture may conceivably have been followed by symbolically wounding it and amputating its lethal end. Identification of further ammoglyphs will be important in refining the analysis of this newly identified form of early palaeoart.

Compared to other continents, the study of indigenous (non-western) knowledge of palaeontology in Africa is a relatively new field. The literature reviewed here nevertheless suggests a long-lasting string of traditions, geomyths and folklore related to fossilized items on the whole continent and encompassing many African cultures. It is often difficult to estimate the antiquity of these traditions, but the evidence gathered here suggests that they range from the 1800s to pre-colonial times, and up to many millennia. Palaeontological items were collected and used for a variety of reasons, but the African record seems unusual for its scarce use of fossils for traditional medicine. Also, despite substantial efforts, some famous localities with conspicuous fossils still remain without any documented indigenous knowledge. We stress that documenting fossil-related folklore and geomyths is not only a matter of preserving this knowledge or promoting diversity, but is also crucial for establishing strong bonds with local stakeholders to encourage preservation of geoheritage and discover new sites.

Seven Pleistocene tracksites and two lithic sites, identified with varying degrees of confidence and attributed to Homo sapiens, have been identified in aeolianite deposits along a 1200 m coastal stretch at Brenton-on-Sea on South Africa's Cape south coast. Some sites contain more than one track- or trace-bearing layer, and each site is from a geological different unit. The aeolianites adjacent to the ichnosites that have been dated span an age range from 113 +/- 8 ka to 76 +/- 5 ka. Globally, hominin tracks preserved in aeolianites are rare, as are tracks preserved in hyporelief, which are observed at several of the Brenton-on-Sea sites. Clusters of hominin tracksites older than 40 ka are also rare. The sites represent groups of hominins of different sizes traversing dune fields, sometimes jogging or using sticks, and provide details of their tool-making and diet. The ichnological record thus complements the extensive and globally significant archaeological record from the region. The likely presence of nearby accessible caves, and a shoreline that was not too distant, provide an explanation for the profusion of ichnosites and their registration over millennia.

Aeolianites and cemented beach deposits on South Africa’s Cape coast preserve evidence of events that transpired on them when they were composed of unconsolidated sand. Over the past decades, numerous Pleistocene vertebrate tracksites have been identified on aeolianite palaeosurfaces in the Garden Route National Park, West Coast National Park, and Addo Elephant National Park. In the Garden Route National Park alone, 57 Pleistocene vertebrate tracksites have been discovered. An equilibrium exists, whereby new sites become exposed through cliff-collapse events, while known sites slump into the ocean, are eroded through the action of wind and water, or are destroyed through wave action. Engraved graffiti poses a further threat. These sites complement the traditional body fossil record, and have significant palaeoenvironmental and palaeoanthropological implications. Hominin sites are of global importance: one contains the oldest tracks attributed to Homo sapiens, others contain patterns made in sand by ancestral humans and constitutes a form of early palaeoart. Collectively, these sites have substantial geoheritage value. The discoveries create management questions: which sites require active management, and how should they be ranked in importance? Factors which need to be considered in developing a management strategy include the scientific and heritage value of the sites, whether recovery or replication is preferable, the presence or absence of suitable repositories, the level of the threat to site integrity, the accessibility of the site, and the feasibility of recovery. Checklists containing appropriate criteria and questions can form tools in assessing the importance of these ichnosites.

Rock art has at times been classified within an ichnological framework, and ich-nology can potentially make a significant contribution to rock art science. Examples from southern Africa are provided to illuminate the interface between ichnology and rock art re-search. The juxtaposition of petroglyphs of a possible freshwater turtle and a putative reptile swim trace may represent acute ichnological perspicacity and would form the oldest known recognition of this type of trace in Africa. Patterns evident in the natural world may resemble entoptic patterns - these phenomena are not mutually exclusive as explanations for some rock art images.

When and where did humans first fashion footwear? Ichnology holds the potential to answer this unresolved question in palaeoanthropology. The global record of sites from which shod-hominin tracks have been considered is sparse. Consideration of proxies for footwear use, in conjunction with areas of known Middle Stone Age/Middle Paleolithic hominin tracksites, suggests two suitable regions in which to search for shod-hominin tracks of this age: southern Africa and Western Europe. Inhabitants of these areas in the Middle Stone Age would have had the means, motive and opportunity to fashion footwear. Ichnological evidence from three palaeosurfaces on South Africa's Cape coast, in conjunction with neoichnological study, suggests that humans may indeed have worn footwear while traversing dune surfaces during the Middle Stone Age. The hominin track record may be biased towards identification of tracks made by barefoot individuals, therefore the development of criteria for the identification of shod-hominin tracks should aid in future interpretation efforts.

Twelve new avian ichnosites have been identified on South Africa's Cape south coast, adding to the 29 sites previously identified. More than half of these 41 avian ichnosites are found along a 9-km stretch of coastline east of Still Bay. The new sites provide the first southern African trace fossil records of the dove, stork and heron families, as well as a possible ostrich trackway and evidence of probable ostrich eggshell fragments. They buttress the previous inference of large avian chronospecies during the Pleistocene. The preponderance of large- and mediumsized tracks can be attributed to a bias whereby fossil tracks of larger, heavier birds are easier to recognise and interpret. Four of the longest fossil avian trackways ever to be identified occur within a 350-m stretch of coastline in the Driefontein area, east of Still Bay. The new findings provide an enhanced picture of the Pleistocene avifauna of the region. Many of the new sites are fragile and have limited prospects to endure, emphasising the need to document them through photogrammetry, and to regularly explore the coastline in high-yield areas in search of further sites. Douze nouveaux ichnosites d'oiseaux ont ete identifies sur la cote sud du Cap en Afrique du Sud, s'ajoutant aux 29 sites deja identifies. Plus de la moitie de ces 41 ichnosites se trouvent le long d'une bande cotiere de 9 kilometres a l'est de Still Bay. Les nouveaux sites fournissent les premieres traces fossiles pour l'Afrique australe des familles de pigeons, cigognes et herons, ainsi qu'une possible empreinte d'autruche et des indices probables de fragments de coquilles d'oeufs d'autruche. Ces evidences supportent l'hypothese precedente de la presence de chrono-especes d'oiseaux de grande taille au cours du Pleistocene. La preponderance des traces de grande et moyenne taille peut etre attribuee a un biais selon lequel les empreintes fossiles d'oiseaux plus grands et plus lourds sont plus faciles a reconnaitre et a interpreter. Quatre des plus longues pistes d'oiseaux fossiles jamais identifiees se trouvent sur une bande cotiere de 350-m dans la region de Driefontein, a l'est de Still Bay. Les nouvelles decouvertes offrent une image plus complete de l'avifaune du Pleistocene de la region. Beaucoup des sites sont fragiles et ont des perspectives de survie limitees, ce qui souligne la necessite de les documenter par photogrammetrie et de chercher regulierement d'autres sites dans les zones a haut rendement du littoral.

Even though music is inextricably part of the social fabric of past and present societies, it has not received in-depth attention in the archaeological literature from South Africa. This topic received the most attention in rock art studies, where images are mainly discussed concerning the trance dance and musical bow playing. Here we focus on flute playing in rock art depictions from the Cape region. To contextualise our data on flute playing in the rock art imagery, we discuss South African ethnographic instances of reed flute playing. We describe four rock art scenes, from the Attakwas and Ezeljagdspoort sites in the Klein Karoo, and Zimri Shelter and the Procession Shelter in the Cederberg, with figures that are playing what is highly likely to be flutes.

. The making of abstract images is one means through which cognitive modernity can be inferred. Archaeological research has demonstrated that palaeoart was created during the Middle Stone Age on South Africa’s Cape south coast. We have identified two large geo metric features on loose Pleistocene aeolianite slabs on this coastline. Field relations suggest that the surfaces date from Marine Isotope Stage 5. Our interpretation is that early modern humans may have drawn these features on dune surfaces of unconsolidated sand. The potential for images drawn in sand to be preserved creates an opportunity for the appreciation of palaeoart.

The Cape south coast of South Africa contains a rich Middle Stone Age archaeological record, and was of pivotal importance in the emergence of modern humans. The documented palaeoart (engravings and a drawing) of the region, from Blombos Cave and Pinnacle Point, has achieved international renown. Fortuitously, the dune and beach surfaces on which these humans travelled are preserved as aeolianites and cemented foreshore deposits. They provide a record of what transpired on them, including the tracks of humans. Our research suggests that these surfaces contain other records of human activity, which may represent palaeoart, messaging, or foraging. These patterns are amenable to our documentation and interpretation. They include a large circle, the `hashtag' pattern, a radial pattern, a fan-shaped pattern, sub-parallel grooves, and a possible three-dimensional representational image. We have coined the term `ammoglyph' to describe them. We anticipate that the rock samples we have taken will yield age dates between 70,000 and 150,000 years, based on local stratigraphy and chronology. In the past, sand has been regarded as perishable, compared to other media on which palaeoart could have been recorded, such as rock, shell and bone. In contrast, we suggest that sand constituted a hitherto undocumented canvas for artistic expression by early humans, and that appreciation of this record may enable a new global understanding of palaeoart. Furthermore, these discoveries may buttress the role of the Cape south coast in the emergence of cognitive modernity.

The Cape south coast of South Africa contains a wealth of Pleistocene vertebrate trace fossil sites in aeolianites and cemented foreshore deposits. Published studies have described mammal and avian tracksites identified along this coastline. We report here on a number of Pleistocene palaeosurfaces within the Garden Route National Park that exhibit tracks of large reptiles, including probable swim traces. The tracks were probably made by more than one species, and may include a crocodylian. There are no extant reptiles in this coastal region capable of making such tracks and traces, which probably represent an indication of a previously more extensive range for the Nile crocodile and a monitor lizard. These findings demonstrate the potential for ichnology to complement the traditional body fossil record. Two Middle Stone Age stone artifacts were found embedded in one palaeosurface containing multiple reptile trackways. These discoveries have implications for the understanding of Pleistocene palaeoenvironment and palaeoclimate – in an area which is important in the study of modern human origins.

The Cape south coast of South Africa boasts one of the richest Middle Stone Age (MSA) archaeological records in the world. Here coastal caves and rock shelters contain well-documented archives of early humans, including early evidence of human adornment and jewelry, rock engraving and rock paSabstextinting. It has been suggested that palaeoenvironmental conditions in the area were critical to the survival of the human species. Humans travelled over dune surfaces, interdune areas and beaches during this period. These are now preserved as palaeosurfaces in aeolianites and cemented foreshore deposits, through which the ancient landscapes can be interpreted. Such contemporary sand surfaces may have formed potential canvases on which foraging behaviour or the creation of patterns or symbols could have been recorded. We question whether MSA humans left evidence of their presence other than their footprints when moving over these surfaces, and if so, whether such evidence can be discerned and interpreted today, as a hominin signature preserved in exposures of aeolianite and cemented foreshore deposits. We discuss other agents that could have caused similar patterns, and we consider the merits of eight sites that we have identified on the Cape south coast. In combination they encapsulate the complexity, challenges and potential of such study. We conclude that evidence at some of these sites suggests an anthropic origin, potentially constituting a previously undocumented form of MSA hominin expression and activity.