To investigate the seasonal changes in physiological and psychological parameters of stress in collegiate swimmers. Fifteen NCAA Division I swimmers (8 men) participated in a tethered anaerobic swim test to determine physiological responses in an ecologically-relevant, graded exercise test. Wisconsin Upper Respiratory Symptom Survey (WURSS-21), Activation-Deactivation Adjective Check List (AD-ACL), Daily Analysis of Life Demands of Athletes (DALDA), and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index were assessed at post-season in April (V 1 ), the end of off-season in June (V 2 ), and pre-season in October (V 3 ). The percent change was determined from V 2 –V 1 (off-season phase), V 3 –V 2 (pre-season phase), V 1 –V 3 (in-season phase). Spearman’s rho correlation was used to examine associations between change in physiological and psychological outcomes. All data results showed a better swim performance occurred at V 2 . Men tended to have faster speed ( p = 0.07) in fewer strokes ( p = 0.10) and greater work per stroke ( p = 0.10) at V 2 than V 1 . Women were faster during V 2 compared to V 1 ( p = 0.02) and V 3 ( p = 0.05). Women had fewer strokes ( p = 0.02) and greater work per stroke ( p = 0.01) at V 2 compared to V 3 . Women had the lowest HR and lactate concentration at V 3 compared to other visits ( p < 0.05). During the in-season phase, swim speed decreased the greatest extent and stress sources and symptoms assessed by DALDA had greatest elevation ( p < 0.05). An increased in stress sources and symptoms assessed by DALDA was associated with an increase in upper respiratory illness from WURSS-21 ( rho = 0.44, p = 0.009), being less energetic ( rho = − 0.35, p = 0.04) and greater tension state ( rho = 0.49, p = 0.003; AD-ACL), and a decrease in swim speed ( rho =− 0.38, p = 0.03). Swim performance peaked at off-season when psychological stress was at its lowest. The relationship between DALDA scores with psychological parameters and swim performance suggested physiological and psychological parameters of stress is an important aspect to avoid overtraining when approaching high swim performance.

The leucine metabolite β‐hydroxy‐β‐methylbutyrate (HMB) has a long, successful history as an ergogenic aid for enhancing strength, performance, body composition, aerobic fitness, and recovery. Probiotic supplements have been associated with improved digestive health, improved immune function, and lower inflammation. Bacillus coagulans GBI‐30, 6086, has been linked to improved nutrient absorption, specifically protein digestion, potentially through optimizing gut microbiota composition and increased proteolytic activity. In a prior study, combined supplementation with HMB and B. coagulans GBI‐30, 6086 during intense military training attenuated inflammation and helped maintain muscle integrity better than did HMB alone. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of supplementation with the spore‐forming probiotic B. coagulans on the kinetics of calcium HMB (CaHMB) and HMB free acid (HMB‐FA). We hypothesized that probiotic supplementation would improve the kinetic profile of HMB, thus improving HMB bioavailability. Six male participants (26.5 ± 1.4 years; 76.4 ± 4.9 kg) were randomly assigned to receive 0.8 g of HMB as either CaHMB (n=3) or HMB‐FA (n=3) (myHMB, TSI, Missoula, MT). Within 7 days of the first study visit, participants began a 14‐day course of daily probiotic supplementation with 2 billion CFU B. coagulans GBI‐30, 6086 (Digestive Advantage, Schiff Vitamins, Salt Lake City, UT). We compared HMB (pooled CaHMB and HMB‐FA data) pharmacokinetics before (HMB alone, Figure 1) and after the 14‐day course of daily probiotic supplementation (HMB + Probiotic, Figure 1). Two weeks of probiotic supplementation increased peak plasma HMB levels by 16% (p < 0.05). Total HMB exposure (area under the curve) was 19% (p < 0.05) higher following probiotic supplementation. Probiotic supplementation did not affect the time to reach peak HMB levels, HMB half‐life, or plasma clearance of HMB. Approximately 20% of the consumed HMB dose was excreted in urine over 24 hours, with no effect of probiotic supplementation on HMB excretion (percent excreted = 20 ± 3 and 19 ± 4% before and after probiotic supplementation, respectively). In conclusion, 14 days of probiotic supplementation improved the absorption and bioavailability of β‐hydroxy‐β‐methylbutyrate (HMB), which may enhance HMB's effectiveness.

The primary aim of this study was to determine whether supplementation with calcium β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB) and vitamin D3 (D) would enhance muscle function and strength in older adults. Older adults over 60 years of age with insufficient circulating 25-hydroxy-vitamin D (25OH-D) levels were enrolled in a double-blinded controlled 12-month study. Study participants were randomly assigned to treatments consisting of: (a) Control + no exercise, (b) HMB+D + no exercise, (c) Control + exercise, and (d) HMB+D + exercise. The study evaluated 117 participants via multiple measurements over the 12 months that included body composition, strength, functionality, and questionnaires. HMB+D had a significant benefit on lean body mass within the nonexercise group at 6 months (0.44 ± 0.27 kg, HMB+D vs -0.33 ± 0.28 kg, control, p < .05). In nonexercisers, improvement in knee extension peak torque (60°/s) was significantly greater in HMB+D-supplemented participants than in the nonsupplemented group (p = .04) at 3 months, 10.9 ± 5.7 Nm and -5.2 ± 5.9 Nm, respectively. A composite functional index, integrating changes in handgrip, Get Up, and Get Up and Go measurements, was developed. HMB+D + no exercise resulted in significant increases in the functional index compared with those observed in the control + no exercise group at 3 (p = .03), 6 (p = .04), and 12 months (p = .04). Supplementation with HMB+D did not further improve the functional index within the exercising group. This study demonstrated the potential of HMB and vitamin D3 supplementation to enhance muscle strength and physical functionality in older adults, even in individuals not engaged in an exercise training program.

Although exercise has well-documented health benefits on cardiovascular disease (CVD), the benefit of combination exercise on CVD risk factors in individuals with elevated risk has not been fully elucidated. We compared the effects of aerobic, resistance, and a combination of both aerobic and resistance training on CVD risk factors including peripheral and central BP, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), muscular strength, body composition, blood glucose and lipids. Sixty-nine adults (58±7 years) with an elevated blood pressure or hypertension, overweight/obesity, and sedentary lifestyle were randomized to one of the three 8-week exercise programs or a non-exercise control group. Participants in all three exercise groups had an equal total exercise time, 3 days/week (aerobic: 60 minutes/session vs. resistance: 60 minutes/session vs. combination: aerobic 30 minutes/session plus resistance 30 minutes/session). Combined training provided significant reductions in peripheral (-4 mmHg) and central diastolic BP (-4 mmHg), increase in CRF (4.9 ml/kg/min), increase in upper (4 kg) and lower (11 kg) body strength, and increase in lean body mass (0.8 kg) (p <0.05). Aerobic training only increased CRF (7.7 ml/kg/min), and reduced body weight (-1.0 kg) and fat mass (-0.9 kg) (p <0.05). Resistance training only increased lower body strength (13 kg) and reduced waist circumference (-1.7 cm) (p <0.05). However, neither aerobic or resistance training alone showed significant reductions in BP (p>0.05). Furthermore, a composite score of CVD risk factors indicated a greater reduction with combination training compared to the control group. In conclusion, among individuals at an increased risk for CVD, as little as 8-weeks of combined training may provide more comprehensive CVD benefits compared to time-matched aerobic or resistance training alone.

Collegiate student-athletes experience prolonged physical, psychological and academic stressors, putting them at risk for impaired athletic performance and overall well-being. Practical feasibility undermines the use of objective physiological measures of stress, such as serum cortisol, alternatively favoring subjective measures of well-being by using self-reported questionnaires. PURPOSE: To determine the relationship between serum cortisol and various subjective measures of well-being in NCAA D1 swimmers over a 6-month training period. METHODS: Early morning resting serum samples were collected from sixteen NCAA Division 1 swimmers (8 M, 8 F: 19.81 ± 0.65 yrs) at 2 timepoints (early season and immediate post-season), and an additional mid off-season timepoint was collected in a subset of 10 swimmers. Self-reported subjective measures of well- being were collected at each timepoint by using questionnaires for overtraining (DALDA), sleep quality (PSQI) and mood state (AD-ACL). The gold-standard physiological biomarker of stress, serum cortisol, was measured using commercially-available ELISA kits (R&D Systems). Pearson’s correlation coefficients determined linear correlations between serum cortisol concentration and questionnaire responses (α=0.05). RESULTS: At the pre-season timepoint, higher serum cortisol concentrations (138.99 ± 33.9 ng/mL) were observed in swimmers reporting less calmness (r=-0.79, p=0.006), while this association disappeared at the early season timepoint (p=0.935). At the post-season timepoint, serum cortisol concentrations (123.3 ± 76.7 ng/mL) were negatively correlated with calmness (r=-0.46, p=0.035) and tension (r=-0.45, p=0.041). Surprisingly, however, swimmers reporting greater symptoms of overtraining at the post-season timepoint had reduced cortisol concentration (r=-0.44, p=0.046). DISCUSSION: Subjective questionnaires have been used as a surrogate to objective biomarkers of stress, such as serum cortisol concentration. Although the results obtained from self-reported questionnaires were highly correlated with serum cortisol levels during periods of high academic and athletic stress (post-season), the correlation between cortisol concentration and mood states did not remain consistent throughout the competitive season.

PURPOSE: To examine the cyclical nature of collegiate swim training on anaerobic performance. METHODS: Ten NCAA Division 1 swimmers (n=4 women, age 20.3±0.5 y, weight 64.8±12.3 kg; n=6 men, age, 20.0±0.6 y, weight, 82.6±6.9 kg; mean±SD) participated in 3 testing sessions: immediate post-season (V1), mid-offseason (V2), and early season (V3) separated by 8 weeks between V1 and V2, and 14 weeks between V2 and V3. Each testing session was comprised of an in-pool power test consisting of incrementally-loaded 25-m swims at maximal effort. During the test, participants were attached to a pulley system ending with a 20-gallon bucket. Initial load was set at 40 lbs for men and 20 lbs for women, and increased by 20 lbs and 15 lbs respectively after each trial completion. Swimmers were allowed to rest for 3 min after each trial. Speed, work, and power were calculated using the distance traveled per second factoring in the additional weight in bucket. Heart rate (HR), lactate (La-), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were assessed within the first minute of each rest period. Two-way RM-ANOVAs (visits×bucket weight) were used to compare the effect of training across the primary outcomes. RESULTS: A main effect of visit was observed for average speed whereby V2 was faster in women (V1: 1.08±0.26 m/s, V2: 1.19±0.18 m/s, V3: 1.11±0.31 m/s; P<0.001) and men (V1: 1.20±0.26 m/s, V2: 1.41±0.29 m/s, and V3: 1.25±0.26 m/s; P<0.001) compared to V1 and V3. In addition, an interaction for speed at higher weights was observed and post-hoc analysis revealed higher speeds during V2 in women at 65 lbs (V1:0.75±0.22 m/s, V2: 0.99±0.06 m/s, V3: 0.73±0.25 m/s; P<0.02) and men at 120 lbs (V1: 0.83±0.09 m/s, V2: 1.45±0.57 m/s, V3: 0.77± 0.14 m/s; P<0.001). A main effect of visit was seen for HR demonstrating a higher average HR during V2 in women (165.3±14.4 bpm) compared to V1 (156.7±17.1 bpm) and V3 (156.2±14.8 bpm; P<0.02). RPE and La- were not different between the three visits (P>0.05). Total work per stroke was also higher at 65 lbs in women across visits (V1: 11.9±1.5 Nm, V2: 16.8±2.9 Nm, V3: 12.1±1.6 Nm; P<0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Swimmers had better anaerobic performance during mid-offseason while their overall training load was reduced in both women and men. The greater swimming speeds at similar RPE and La- suggest that the swimmers may benefit from altered training.

Amylomaize-7 is classified as a resistant corn starch and is 68% digestible. When modified by partial hydrolysis in ethanol and hydrochloric acid its digestibility is 92%, yet retains its low glycemic and insulinemic properties. The purpose of this study was to characterize the metabolic response when modified amylomaize-7 or dextrose is consumed in the hour before exercise, and to compare the effect on performance of a brief high-intensity cycling trial. Ten male, trained cyclists were given 1 g/kg body mass of dextrose (DEX) or modified amylomaize-7 (AMY-7) or a flavored water placebo (PL) 45 min prior to exercise on a cycle ergometer. A 15-min ride at 60% Wmax was immediately followed by a self-paced time trial (TT) equivalent to 15 min at 80% Wmax. When cyclists consumed DEX, mean serum glucose concentration increased by 3.3 ± 2.1 mmol/L before exercise, compared to stable serum glucose observed for AMY-7 or PL. Glucose concentrations returned to baseline by pre-TT in all treatments. However, the mean post-TT glucose concentration of the DEX group was significantly lower than baseline, AMY-7, or PL. Serum insulin concentration increased nine-fold from baseline to preexercise in the DEX trial, whereas PL or AMY-7 remained unchanged. Time required to complete the performance trial was not significantly different between DEX, AMY-7 or PL. Preexercise ingestion of modified amylomaize-7 compared to dextrose resulted in a more stable serum glucose concentration, but did not offer a performance advantage in this high-intensity cycling trial.

Background: The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of high and low velocity knee extension training on changes in muscle strength and mobility status in high-functioning older adults.Methods: Twenty-six (16 female. 10 male) older adults (mean age of 65) were randomized to either 6 weeks of low velocity resistance training (LVRT) performed at 75 degrees/s or high velocity resistance training (HVRT) performed at 240 degrees/s. Both groups performed 3 sets of knee extension exercises at maximal effort. 3 times a week. Muscle strength was assessed through a range of testing velocities on an isokinetic dynamometer. Mobility status was assessed with the short physical performance battery (SPPB) and myosin heavy chain (MyHC) transcript levels were quantified via qRT-PCR.Results: From baseline to post-training, there were several significant (P < 0.05) differences in muscle strength and functional characteristics in LVRT (n = 13) and HVRT (n = 13) groups. From baseline to post-training, MyHC-alpha mRNA and MyHC-Ila mRNA showed a significant (P < 0.05) increase within HVRT but MyHC-IIx mRNA did not change significantly. Our results demonstrate HVRT provides a greater number of muscular enhancements when compared to LVRT, particularly under conditions of high velocity muscle contraction.Conclusion: HVRT is emerging as the optimal training stimulus for the older adult. The present study demonstrates, in addition to increased strength and functional outcomes, HVRT elicits a potentially therapeutic (i.e., slow to fast) transcriptional response in MyHC. (C) 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Palatability of sport drinks can encourage increased drinking behavior throughout prolonged exercise bouts and mitigate voluntary dehydration. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to assess voluntary drinking behaviors, taste preferences, and fluid balance during endurance exercise performed in a hot environment and compare between a novel vegetable-based beverage (VB), commercial coconut water (CW), and sweet placebo (PLA). METHODS: The study was a double-blind randomized trial with repeated measures for 10 college aged male cyclists. Each subject participated in three, 90 minute cycling sessions after an overnight fast, with 1 week between trials. During each session, the subject drank one of the test beverages ad libitum. Each exercise session was conducted in a thermostatically controlled heat chamber maintained at 30C and 50% humidity. Volume ingested and time of drinking were recorded out of sight of the participants who were not told their drinking behaviors were being monitored. Body fluid balance was assessed as total fluid intake minus fluid output (sweat and urine). After each exercise session, subjects were given a survey to rate palatability characteristics using a 9 cm visual analog scale. RESULTS: Fluid intake was greatest with VB, followed by PLA then CW (888 ± 91 mL, 828 ± 123 mL, 812 ± 114 mL, respectively) (p =0.04, quadratic effect, p = 0.06 linear effect). Net fluid balance at the end of exercise was not different between drinks (CW: -1575 ± 171 mL, PL: -1449 ± 176 mL, SP: -1314 ± 145 mL) (p = 0.08). Survey data indicated significant treatment effects (p < 0.05) for “overall taste”, “flavor rating”, “thirst” at end of exercise, “refreshing”, and “overall satisfaction with the beverage”. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, preference for VB corresponded with increased drinking volume throughout the exercise bout. The increased fluid intake may reduce magnitude of negative fluid balance during exercise in a hot environment.

β-Hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB), a leucine metabolite, has long been supplemented as a Ca salt (Ca-HMB) to increase strength and performance gains with exercise and to reduce recovery time. Recently, the free acid form of HMB (HMB-FA) has become commercially available in capsule form (gelcap). The current study was conducted to compare the bioavailability of HMB using the two commercially available capsule forms of HMB-FA and Ca-HMB. We also compared the pharmacokinetics of each form when administered mixed in water. Ten human subjects (five male and five female) were studied in a randomised crossover design. There was no significant sex by treatment interaction for any of the pharmacokinetic parameters measured. HMB-FA administered in capsules was more efficient than Ca-HMB capsule at HMB delivery with a 37 % increase in plasma clearance rate (74·8 (sem 4·0) v. 54·5 (sem 3·2) ml/min, P<0·0001) and a 76 % increase in peak plasma HMB concentration (270·2 (sem 17·8) v. 153·9 (sem 17·9) μmol/l, P<0·006), which was reached in one-third the time (P<0·009). When HMB-FA and Ca-HMB were administered in water, the differences still favoured HMB-FA, albeit to a lesser degree. Plasma HMB with HMB-FA administered in water was greater during the early phase of absorption (up to 45 min postadministration, P<0·05); this resulted in increased AUC during the first 60 min after administration, when compared with Ca-HMB mixed in water (P<0·03). In conclusion, HMB-FA in capsule form improves clearance rate and availability of HMB compared with Ca-HMB in capsule form.

................................................................................................................. vii CHAPTER

Keywords: Protein SourceAmino Acid ConcentrationWhey Protein ConcentrateAmino Acid PatternLeucine Concentration

The aquatic sports competitions held during the summer Olympic Games include diving, open-water swimming, pool swimming, synchronized swimming, and water polo. Elite-level performance in each of these sports requires rigorous training and practice to develop the appropriate physiological, biomechanical, artistic, and strategic capabilities specific to each sport. Consequently, the daily training plans of these athletes are quite varied both between and within the sports. Common to all aquatic athletes, however, is that daily training and preparation consumes several hours and involves frequent periods of high-intensity exertion. Nutritional support for this high-level training is a critical element of the preparation of these athletes to ensure the energy and nutrient demands of the training and competition are met. In this article, we introduce the fundamental physical requirements of these sports and specifically explore the energetics of human locomotion in water. Subsequent articles in this issue explore the specific nutritional requirements of each aquatic sport. We hope that such exploration will provide a foundation for future investigation of the roles of optimal nutrition in optimizing performance in the aquatic sports.

PURPOSETo determine whether chicken noodle soup before exercise increases ad libitum water intake, fluid balance, and physical and cognitive performance compared with water.METHODSNine trained men (age 25 ± 3 yr, VO2peak 54.2 ± 5.1 ml · kg-1 · min-1; M ± SD) performed cycle exercise in the heat (wet bulb globe temperature = 25.9 ± 0.4 °C) for 90 min at 50% VO2peak, 45 min after ingesting 355 ml of either commercially available bottled water (WATER) or chicken noodle soup (SOUP). The same bottled water was allowed ad libitum throughout both trials. Participants then completed a time trial to finish a given amount of work (10 min at 90% VO2peak; n = 8). Cognitive performance was evaluated by the Stroop color-word task before, every 30 min during, and immediately after the time trial.RESULTSAd libitum water intake throughout steady-state exercise was greater in SOUP than with WATER (1,435 ± 593 vs. 1,163 ± 427 g, respectively; p < .03). Total urine volume was similar in both trials (p = .13), resulting in a trend for greater water retention in SOUP than in WATER (87.7% ± 7.6% vs. 74.9% ± 21.7%, respectively; p = .09), possibly due to a change in free water clearance (-0.32 ± 1.22 vs. 0.51 ± 1.06 ml/min, respectively; p = .07). Fluid balance tended to be improved with SOUP (-106 ± 603 vs. -478 ± 594 g, p = .05). Likewise, change in plasma volume tended to be reduced in SOUP compared with WATER (p = .06). Only mild dehydration was achieved (<1%), and physical performance was not different between treatments (p = .77). The number of errors in the Stroop color-word task was lower in SOUP throughout the entire trial (treatment effect; p = .04).CONCLUSIONSOUP before exercise increased ad libitum water intake and may alter kidney function.

This paper is a meta-analysis of the role of nutritional supplements in strength training focusing on the effects of placebo treatments. We address specifically the results from meta-analysis of 334 fi.ndings from 37 studies of the effect of nutritional supplements and physical fitness interventions on strength, stamina, and endurance outcomes, controlling for main effects of the group on which the results were obtained (placebo, treatment, control, for pretest or posttest), with covariates for age, gender, randomization, double-blind procedures, study duration, training load, training frequency, and training status. Finding show that there are significant placebo effects accounting for a substantial portion of the effect size typically associated with treatment interventions. In addition to produce the best evaluations of treatment effects, both control and placebo groups should be included in a double-blind research design using participants who are well familiarized with the study procedures.

Intracellular concentrations of adenosine-5’-triphosphate (ATP) are many times greater than extracellular concentrations (1–10 mM versus 10–100 nM, respectively) and cellular release of ATP is tightly controlled. Transient rises in extracellular ATP and its metabolite adenosine have important signaling roles; and acting through purinergic receptors, can increase blood flow and oxygenation of tissues; and act as neurotransmitters. Increased blood flow not only increases substrate availability but may also aid in recovery through removal of metabolic waste products allowing muscles to accomplish more work with less fatigue. The objective of the present study was to determine if supplemental ATP would improve muscle torque, power, work, or fatigue during repeated bouts of high intensity resistance exercise.

The intent of this study was to determine whether nutritional supplements [protein (0 4 g kg(-1)) vs carbohydrate (0 4 g kg(-1)) vs placebo] would affect muscle recovery differently after eccentric exercise induced muscle soreness in untrained healthy young men (n=21) aged 20-28 years During this double blind randomized block study design each subject completed three 3 day trials (separated by >= 2 weeks) identical except for treatment with each subject serving as his own control Trials began with a bout of right leg eccentric exercise (Biodex) followed directly by treatment At 0 (baseline) 24 and 48 hours data were collected creatine phosphokinase from pre exercise blood samples subjective muscle soreness questions and strength tests (power torque work) ANOVA indicated that exercise caused mild muscle damage as evidenced by an over all day effect (p 0 0001) for muscle soreness with the lowest median values (0-10 scale) on day 1 (0 7) increasing (p <= 0 0001) on day 2 (3 2) and remaining elevated on day 3 (3 4) We also noted an overall day effect (p <= 0 0001) for creatine phosphokinase with the lowest median values on day 1 (136 U L-1) increasing (p <= 0 0001) on day 2 (235 U L-1) and remaining elevated on day 3 (189 U L-1) ANOVA revealed no significant treatment effect on indicators of soreness or damage during recovery Our results indicated that protein or carbohydrate supplement after exercise that caused mild muscle damage did not facilitate muscle recovery in adequately nourished healthy young men [J Exerc Sci Fit . Vol 8 . No 2 . 89-96 . 2010]

The leucine metabolite, β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate (HMB), is a nutritional supplement that increases lean muscle and strength with exercise and in disease states. HMB is presently available as the Ca salt (CaHMB). The present study was designed to examine whether HMB in free acid gel form will improve HMB availability to tissues. Two studies were conducted and in each study four males and four females were given three treatments in a randomised, cross-over design. Treatments were CaHMB (gelatin capsule, 1 g), equivalent HMB free acid gel swallowed (FASW) and free acid gel held sublingual for 15 s then swallowed (FASL). Plasma HMB was measured for 3 h following treatment in study 1 and 24 h with urine collection in study 2. In both the studies, the times to peak plasma HMB were 128 (sem11), 38 (sem4) and 38 (sem1) min (P < 0·0001) for CaHMB, FASW and FASL, respectively. The peak concentrations were 131 (sem6), 249 (sem14) and 239 (sem14) μmol/l (P < 0·0001) for CaHMB, FASW and FASL, respectively. The areas under the curve were almost double for FASW and FASL (P < 0·0001). Daily urinary HMB excretion was not significantly increased resulting in more HMB retained (P < 0·003) with FASW and FASL. Half-lives were 3·17 (sem0·22), 2·50 (sem0·13) and 2·51 (sem0·14) h for CaHMB, FASW and FASL, respectively (P < 0·004). Free acid gel resulted in quicker and greater plasma concentrations (+185 %) and improved clearance (+25 %) of HMB from plasma. In conclusion, HMB free acid gel could improve HMB availability and efficacy to tissues in health and disease.