This study investigated the acute effects of ground poles and abdominal kinesiotaping (KT) on rectus abdominis (RA) and longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle activity, pelvic symmetry, and selected kinematic variables in eleven horses trotting in hand. Four conditions were evaluated: control, poles, KT, and combined KT with poles. Surface electromyography quantified muscle activity, inertial sensors assessed pelvic symmetry, and two-dimensional video analysis measured limb protraction and lumbosacral (LS) angle. Peak RA activity was significantly greater during poles and poles with KT compared with KT alone (P ≤ 0.003), although average RA activity did not differ between conditions. LS angle was reduced during poles at forelimb midstance (P = 0.035) and at maximal hindlimb protraction (P ≤ 0.023). Hindlimb protraction decreased in pole conditions (P < 0.001). No significant effects were observed for LD activity or pelvic symmetry. These findings indicate that pole exercise influences abdominal muscle activation and lumbosacral kinematics during trot. Kinesiotaping alone did not significantly alter muscle activity or kinematics. The magnitude and clinical relevance of observed changes were modest, and the potential influence of speed cannot be excluded. Further controlled studies incorporating three-dimensional kinematics and velocity measurement are warranted

Background:Canine agility is a physically demanding sport that carries an inherent risk of injury. The weave pole obstacle is a mandatory component in agility courses under UK Kennel Club regulations, requiring a complex forward and lateral side-to-side gait that is not typically replicated outside the sport. This study aimed to evaluate key kinetic parameters-peak force (PF), peak vertical force (PVF), vertical impulse (VI) and stance time (ST)-experienced by forelimbs and hindlimbs during weave pole performance, and to assess differences across the three most common forelimb gait variations: front-feet single-stepping rear double (FFSS/RD), double-stepping (FFDS) and hopping (FFH). Methods:Seventeen experienced agility dogs completed a set of six competition-standard weave poles (FFSS/RD, n = 8; FFDS, n = 4; FFH, n = 5). Data were collected using two pressure-sensing walkways and statistically analysed. Results:Outer limbs, in general, have shown significantly higher PVF, PV, VI and ST (p < 0.001 for all variables on both forelimbs and hindlimbs). Peak vertical force was significantly greater in the outer forelimbs and outer hindlimbs of FFH dogs compared to FFDS and FFSS/RD (p < 0.001 and 0.021, respectively, for forelimbs; p = 0.014 and 0.003, respectively, for hindlimbs). Stance time and VI were higher on the outer forelimb on FFSS/RD (the only forelimb used in this style) in comparison with FFH (ST: p = 0.003; VI: p = 0.024) and FFDS (ST: p = 0.041; VI: p = 0.032). Conclusions:Overall, there is a clear asymmetry in outer and inner limbs in all styles, which is consistent to the expected on turns. All gaits have shown a trend on redistribution of load towards the outer hindlimb, which was more extreme on FFSS/RD. Stance time was generally lower, and PVF and PF were higher in the FFH group. These factors raise questions regarding the long-term implications of weave pole performance in dogs exhibiting this gait.

This cross-sectional survey aimed to provide an up-to-date picture of UK-practicing small-animal and mixed-practice veterinary surgeons’ treatment preferences and physiotherapy recommendations for canine cruciate ligament disease (CCLD). 236 vets completed the survey. Data were analysed to determine frequencies of response, medians, and Pearson’s Chi-squared or Fisher’s exact results. The median response was that vets were “likely” to recommend surgical over conservative treatment. Most used imaging (100%), static (98.3%), dynamic (98.3%) and manual orthopaedic (99.25%) assessments at baseline. Most (62.3%) always recommended formal physiotherapy post-CCLD-surgery; uptake had increased from a previous survey’s results (Eiermann et al. 2020). There were significant associations with this recommendation and age range (X2 (4) = 13.333, P = 0.01; V = 0.24); years in-practice (X2 (5) = 12.835, P = 0.025; V = 0.23); undertaking training or Continuing Professional Development in rehabilitation since qualifying (X2 (1) = 14.121, P <.001; V = 0.25) and workplace business-structure (X2 (2) = 6.571, P = 0.037; V = 0.17). Most respondents used compliance increasing (91.1%) and compliance monitoring (85.6%) measures. Most (85.6%) monitored patient-progress with follow-up assessments; continuation beyond week-8 post-surgery was not commonplace. Biomechanical assessments were viewed as less useful than vet reporting for assessing recovery. The median response was “major positive effect” regarding physiotherapy’s effect during conservative management and post-CCLD-surgery, most (63.1%) viewed it as as-beneficial after any CCLD-surgery-type. The median response regarding the strength of evidence for its use was “moderately strong”.

Background: The saddle fit plays a critical role in equine biomechanics and welfare, yet limited data exist regarding thoracolumbar kinetic responses in Criollo horses (Equus ferus caballus) using different saddle systems.Aims & Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate thoracolumbar kinetic variables in Criollo horses during locomotion using three saddle types.Methods: Thirty-three Criollo horses were assessed during walk, trot, and canter with three independent types of saddle. Kinetic variables, including contact area (cm²), mean pressure (kPa), force (N), peak pressure (kPa), and peak force (N), were measured in the cranial and caudal regions of the saddle using the F-Scan system. Data normality was verified using the Shapiro–Wilk test. Regional comparisons were performed using paired t-tests, whilst the statistical comparison between the independent variables' means was conducted using a two-way ANOVA. The interaction between variables’ effects was assessed using ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni post hoc tests (P < 0.05).Results: The Basto-style saddle with gel pad demonstrated significantly lower cranial force and greater caudal contact area, indicating improved load distribution. In contrast, the conventional saddle with a blanket revealed higher caudal pressure and peak force values, suggesting suboptimal pressure distribution. Across all conditions, the cranial region consistently exhibited higher kinetic values than the caudal region (P < 0.05), confirming that the saddle type significantly influences thoracolumbar biomechanics in Criollo horses.Conclusion: The Basto-style saddle with gel pad provided the most balanced pressure distribution across all types of saddles evaluated, thus may contribute to improved equine welfare.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of girth design and girth tension; six horses regularly ridden were used. Each horse underwent four experimental sessions in an unbalanced Latin-square design with two girth tensions (8 kg or 16 kg) and two girth designs (straight girth (S) or anatomical girth (A)). Pressure between the saddle and the horse was measured at 100 Hz with a pressure mat (0.5 sensels per cm2). Notably, 2D limb kinematics were determined from anatomical markers placed on the fore and hindlimbs. Video was collected at 240 fps. There was no significant effect of girth type, girth tension, or girth type*tension interaction for any of the measured variables, with the exception of carpal flexion, which was significantly greater for A8 (median: 103°, 25th–75th percentile: 100–112°) than S8 (101°, 96–106°; p = 0.043). There was no effect of girth type (A or S) on mean saddle pressure for either cranial or caudal regions (p > 0.05), but caudal average pressure was significantly lower than cranial average pressure both at 8 and 16 kg tensions (p < 0.05). For both mean and peak pressure, the ratio cranial: caudal was significantly higher with 16 kg tension (p < 0.05), indicating that as the girth tension increases, the pressures shift towards the cranial aspect. In conclusion, neither girth tension nor girth type significantly influenced 2D limb kinematics, but higher tension has shifted the load towards the cranial area significantly, which could contribute to cranial thoracic back pain or injuries.

Equine sports medicine continues to advance at pace, driven by innovations in technology, AI, biomechanics, exercise physiology, and clinical diagnostics [...]

A high proportion of agility injuries associated with an obstacle are due to the A-frame, however, there is limited research into the kinetics and kinematics of dogs traversing this type of equipment. The aim of this research was to study the kinematics and kinetics of agility dogs negotiating an A-frame when the preceding obstacle (in this case a jump) was placed at 10 m, 7.5 m and 5 m ahead of the A-frame. Six competition standard agility dogs were recorded negotiating an A-frame after completing a jump with each dog attempting each distance three times. Inertial measuring units attached to each dog gathered maximum velocity, acceleration and deceleration between jump landing and the A-frame. Video analysis and pressure sensors gathered carpal hyperextension and peak vertical forces for both forelimbs at the dogs' contact with the A-frame. The study found no difference in either carpal extension or PVF data between the different distances. However, maximum approach velocity decreased (p < 0.05) with decreasing distance: 10 m (7.30 ± 0.40 m/s), 7 m (6.61 ± 0.34 m/s), and 5 m (5.74 ± 0.62 m/s). Acceleration was also decreased at the 5 m distance compared with 10 m distance (p < 0.05). A notable finding was the -1.57 m/s2 decrease in deceleration found between the 10 m (-5.92 m/s2) and 5 m (-4.35 m/s2) distances (p < 0.05), with the 10 m distance having 36 % more deceleration than 5 m. As forelimbs have a role in deceleration, an increased distance between obstacles could be one of the factors involved in forelimbs injuries in agility dogs. In our study, positioning the preceding obstacle 5 m from the A-frame moderated speed, acceleration, and deceleration, and could potentially help to reduce reported injury rates, but additional studies are recommended to allow evidence-based guidelines.

There are no regulations for the flyball box angulation, which ranges from 45° to 89°. As such at present, the box turn is deemed to represent the greatest injury risk to competitors. The aim of this study was to understand the influence of box angle on kinematic variables during a flyball turn, by comparing dogs turning on three different angulations of flyball box (45°, 60° and 83°) to allow for recommendations to be made regarding the most appropriate box design in terms of limiting risk of injury across the sport, to increase both wellbeing and safety for competitors. Turning on a 45° box generates significantly more flexion in the forelimbs and carpus, whereas turning on an 83° box generates greater degrees of extension in the elbow, shoulder, hock and stifle. What our 3D analysis has shown is that the relationship between box angle and the physical demands placed on the dog are complex, and related mainly to asymmetrical nature of the sport, and as such no one angle may be more or less suitable for training and competition, but the 60° seems to be a mid-ground, whereas direction of turn may be fundamental in generating the potential for injury.

The purpose of this study was to identify the effects of four heights of cavaletti exercise on canine kinematics and kinetics. Eight dogs had kinematics and kinetics data collected whilst completing cavaletti pole exercises at four different heights (floor, mid-metatarsal, hock, and stifle). Dogs had anatomical markers placed on bony landmarks of the fore and hindlimb joints. Each trial was recorded via a high-speed camera and two pressure mats. Kinematics outcomes were joint range of motion (ROM). Kinetic outcomes were force (%BW), impulse and peak pressure. Friedman and Wilcoxon’s tests were performed to identify significant differences between cavaletti heights. A statistically significant increase was found at hock height placement across all joints whilst maintaining kinetic parameters similar to floor height. No significant differences were found for hip range of motion at any pole height. It was found that stifle height showed no increase in joint range of motion but has the highest forces involved. This determines that hock height is the most beneficial height for improving joint range of motion whilst not increasing forces upon the limbs. Stifle height should be avoided, in some conditions, due to high peak pressures, which do not necessarily lead to a significant further increase in range of motion.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the cardiovascular morphofunctional and biochemical training adaptations of Criollo breed horses. Thirty-one animals were evaluated, arranged in two groups - untrained horses, used as a control group (n = 17); trained horses, in training for the Freio de Ouro competition (n = 14). The means and standard deviation of echocardiographic, electrocardiographic and biochemical variables were measured and, subsequently, compared between groups of trained and untrained animals using Student's t test, considering P < 0.05. Trained horses had lower biochemical levels of CK, CKMB and cTnI I when compared to untrained animals. The echocardiographic variables interventricular septum during diastole (IVSd), left ventricular free wall during systole (LVFWs), left ventricular free wall during diastole (LVFWd), left ventricular mass (LVMass), diameter of the aorta (Ao) and diameter of the left atrium (LA) have shown higher values in trained horses compared to untrained. Duration of the T wave was the only electrocardiographic variable that was influenced by training, showing higher values for untrained animals. Therefore, there is influence of training on biochemical variables, in addition to on morphological and functional echocardiographic/electrocardiographic characters in trained Criollo breed horses, characterised by concentric cardiac hypertrophy, when compared to untrained individuals. In addition, a majority of normal sinus heart rhythm was observed in the animals evaluated.

A 15-day-old colt was presented with grade 5 lameness (American Association of Equine Practitioners - lameness scale), oedema of the right pelvic limb and stifle joint instability. A radiographic examination revealed a complete comminuted fracture of the proximal right tibia. To treat this, a surgical reduction was performed using a hybrid external fixator. The hybrid external fixator consisted of two rings placed above the proximal and distal epiphyseal plates, respectively, which were then linked with threaded rods. Within 24 hours of the surgery, the foal started weight-bearing again. After 6 days, the hybrid external fixator rings were distracted by 1 mm per day for 17 days, which helped to increase the bone length. Once the hybrid external fixator was removed, a small shortening of the tibia (1 cm) was observed compared to the contralateral limb, but the epiphyseal cartilage was maintained.

A recent survey by the authors of the present study indicated that headcollar (halter, USA) related incidents resulting in horse injuries may be common. From the survey, 134 incidents involving horse fractures and 167 fatalities were reported. Headcollar design and materials vary markedly from traditional leather to “safety” headcollars and safety devices. Despite their almost universal use, there has been minimal study as to how these items function or specifications for performance. The aim of the present study was to select a range of commercially available standard headcollars and a number of safety devices, to test the force required to break or release them. Safety devices selected included baler twine, which is widely used by equestrians to attach a horse by a headcollar to a lead rope and in turn to a fixture. This system practice is perceived to increase safety. Devices were subjected to increasing load in the poll to lead-rope attachment axis (i.e. to simulate a horse pulling backward) using a custom-made steel rig incorporating an electric 1000 kg winch. The force was increased incrementally until either the headcollar or device opened or failed. The lowest mean opening force of 357 ± 50 N was for a safety headcollar, which is equivalent to a load of approximately 36 kg. The highest breaking force was 5798 ± 265 N for one of the eight different webbing headcollars tested. Breaking for safety devices ranged from 354 ± 121 N for “fine” baler twine to 1348 ± 307 N for a “heavy duty” baler twine. Variability in opening force was lowest in two of the webbing headcollars (CV < 5%) despite these having very high breaking points (>3500 N). The greatest variability was found for fine baler twine (CV = 34%) and one of the commercial safety devices (CV = 38%). The range of opening forces and variability in opening forces for standard headcollars, safety headcollars and safety devices is a cause for concern and may give horse owners/handlers a false sense of security with regards to safety, and actually predispose horses and handlers to an increased risk of injury.

BackgroundIncline treadmill and underwater treadmill (UWTM) exercises are common canine rehabilitation modalities , which are often used in isolation in dogs recovering from spinal surgery. Early use of an incline during UWTM exercise may have the potential to improve rehabilitation outcomes in dogs, but, it is hypothesised that dorsoventral movement of the spine may be excessive meaning it is unsuitable in some circumstances. ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to identify changes in canine spinal kinematics in dogs when using a dry treadmill at different angles of incline compared to an underwater treadmill using the same inclines. MethodsEight dogs were encouraged to walk on a dry, horizontal, underwater treadmill as well as under the same conditions with both a 10% and 20% incline. This was then repeated at a 10% and 20% incline with the addition of water to hock level. Data were collected using reflective anatomical markers placed at the occipital protuberance, T1, T13, L3, L7 and sacral apex, captured by a high-speed camera facing the lateral aspect of the treadmill. Dorsoventral motion of the spine as well as flexion, extension and range of motion (ROM) of T1, T13, L3 and L7 were recorded. ResultsWe found significant differences in dorsoventral spinal ROM at T1, L3 and L7, but no significant differences in T13 ROM. No significant differences were found in flexion and extension of any of the joints assessed when comparing dry conditions to the use of water (P>0.05). ConclusionsThe lack of significant differences in joint flexion and extension at T1, T13, L3 and L7 indicates the potential safe use of combining underwater treadmill and incline exercise in canine rehabilitation. However, a lack of uniformity in results makes distinguishing any patterns of significance difficult. More research is needed to establish the effects of these exercises in additional planes of motion before a treatment protocol can be established.

Dynamic Mobilisation Exercises (DME) and myotatic reflex exercises were developed with the aim of improving core strengthening in horses. Previous studies have shown DME can increase cross sectional area (CSA) and symmetry of multifidus muscle, as well as activating the external oblique abdominal, and superficial descending pectoral muscles. The aim of this study was to objectively measure activity differences in m. longissimus dorsi (LD) and m. rectus abdominus (RA) whilst performing three levels of spinal flexion and lateral bending, as well as comparing thoracic and pelvic lift exercises in nine adult sport horses. Three repetitions of each exercise was performed for five seconds. Surface electromyography (sEMG) was used to record muscle electric activity, whilst sagittal lumbo-sacral flexion was measured with kinematics analysis. Overall, the results have shown that spinal flexion and lateral bending activate the m. rectus abdominis (RA) progressively as the exercise requires further reach, with a lateral bending effect evident on the ipsilateral side of RA. RA also had increased activation during thoracic lifts in comparison with pelvic lifts. M. longissimus dorsi (LD) has shown no significant differences in peak or average rectified EMG measures on the contralateral side during lateral bending. Pelvic lifts generated the greatest flexion of the lumbo-sacral (LS) joint. Results provide a guideline of the level of muscle effort required in relation to each exercise.

BACKGROUND:With hydrotherapy rising in the United Kingdom, before understanding the effect of hydrotherapy in animals with pathologies, kinematics data for healthy animals is required. OBJECTIVES:To assess how different water levels on an underwater treadmill (UWTM) can affect joint kinematics. METHODS:Zinc oxide markers were placed on bony landmarks on the limbs of 10 healthy dogs, randomly split into five groups. An UWTM was used with water levels to the digits, tarsus, stifle and hip. The maximum flexion, extension and ROM were determined and a repeated measures ANOVA or Friedman's was used to determine significant differences. RESULTS:We have detected various changes in kinematics following exercise at different water levels, in comparison with a dry treadmill, including consistent increases in flexion of the elbow, stifle and tarsal joints, which were observed for all water levels. The carpal joint had increases in flexion all water levels apart from digit level. An increase in shoulder flexion was seen only with water on or above stifle level, while hip kinematics had the fewest changes with only ROM increasing at high water level (hip level). Extension of the limbs joints was not markedly affected, with only a few data being significant. The carpal joint had an overall decrease in extension with water at all levels, and the stifle joint had a decreased extension when water was at stifle height. CONCLUSIONS:Water level can significantly affect joint kinematics, and knowledge of how each water level affects the joints is relevant to design tailored hydrotherapy protocols.

Musculoskeletal injuries have been reported to be the main contributor to the interruption or dismissal of a horse’s athletic career. The muscles are responsible for the production of forces involved in movement, yet the muscles are often overlooked with regards to pre/rehabilitation. The use of massage therapy as part of a training programme is becoming increasingly popular. The beneficial effects of massage have been widely researched, though much of the research is on the immediate effects, and consistency between studies is lacking. This study was a preliminary investigation into the effects of a short-term massage programme on the gait parameters of riding school horses. 15 clinically sound riding school horses of different breed, age and height were used in a controlled, blind study. The horses were divided in to three groups of five ensuring a mixture of height, breed and age. Group Massage received a 10 min massage at each side on the proximal hindlimb, once a week for three weeks. Group Sham received 10 min groom at each side on the proximal hindlimb, once a week for three weeks; and the Control Group has received no treatment. Gait analysis was conducted on days 1 and 28. In walk, a significant improvement in stride length symmetry index (SI) ( P =0.043) and protraction SI ( P =0.0043) was found for the Massage Group, with hock flexion SI significantly better for the Massage Group at day 28 ( P =0.03). At trot and canter, hock flexion SI was improved in Group Massage ( P =0.003 and P =0.024, respectively). A short-term massage programme to the proximal hindlimb improved gait symmetry, particularly hock flexion SI, within riding school horses. An appropriate dosage level for particular results needs to be determined in order to effectively utilise massage within a training programme. Further studies analysing kinetic parameters alongside kinematic parameters will enable further conclusions to be drawn.

Osseointegrated transcutaneous implants could provide an alternative and improved means of attaching artificial limbs for amputees, however epithelial down growth, inflammation, and infections are common failure modalities associated with their use. To overcome these problems, a tight seal associated with the epidermal and dermal adhesion to the implant is crucial. This could be achieved with specific biomaterials (that mimic the surrounding tissue), or a tissue-specific design to enhance the proliferation and attachment of dermal fibroblasts and keratinocytes. The intraosseous transcutaneous amputation prosthesis is a new device with a pylon and a flange, which is specifically designed for optimising soft tissue attachment. Previously the flange has been fabricated using traditional machining techniques, however, the advent of additive layer manufacturing (ALM) has enabled 3-dimensional porous flanges with specific pore sizes to be used to optimise soft tissue integration and reduce failure of osseointegrated transcutaneous implants. The study aimed to investigate the effect of ALM-manufactured porous flanges on soft tissue ingrowth and attachment in an in vivo ovine model that replicates an osseointegrated percutaneous implant. At 12 and 24 weeks, epithelial downgrowth, dermal attachment and revascularisation into ALM-manufactured flanges with three different pore sizes were compared with machined controls where the pores were made using conventional drilling. The pore sizes of the ALM flanges were 700, 1000 and 1250 μm. We hypothesised that ALM porous flanges would reduce downgrowth, improve soft tissue integration and revascularisation compared with machined controls. The results supported our hypothesis with significantly greater soft tissue integration and revascularisation in ALM porous flanges compared with machined controls.

Many police dogs do not reach their expected retirement age as they are no longer able to cope with the physical demands of the job. Annual licensing requires police dogs to complete a series of agility tasks, including jumping and negotiating an A-frame obstacle, both of which are associated with higher injury rates in canine agility competitors. This study sought to measure conformational, kinematic, and kinetic parameters of actively employed police German Shepherd Dogs (GSDs), whilst completing a 55 cm jump hurdle, and a standard A-frame. Each dog completed three repetitions of each obstacle and was also recorded at both walk and trot. Contact pressures and forces were measured, whilst joint kinematics were recorded using reflective markers and a high-speed camera. Results found that static hip angle was significantly correlated with hip flexion at trot, during jump suspension and at the apex of the A-frame. Stifle and hock flexion were greatest during the suspension phase of jump (56.98±11.710° and 54.51±17.430°). Shoulder and elbow flexion were greatest at the apex of A-frame (104.34±16.744° and 75.72±20.804°), whilst carpal extension was highest upon landing from the jump (125.77±7.071°). Peak vertical force (PFz) when normalised for body mass (BM) increased when landing from A-frame (14.28 N/kg BM) as opposed to landing from the jump obstacle (12.055 N/kg·BM). Our results show that increased range of motion (ROM) is required during both jumping and negotiation of A-frame compared to walk and trot, but more significantly, greater forces are incurred upon landing from the A-frame than compared to jumping. It was also observed that dogs were subject to high degrees of torsion in the distal limbs upon landing from the A-frame due to trained behaviours. We conclude that use of agility equipment generates greater forces through the musculoskeletal system and requires a greater ROM than what is experienced at walk and trot, which may contribute to early retirement ages in police dogs.

We investigated endogenous tissue response to a woven and electrospun polydioxanone (PDO) and polycaprolactone (PCL) patch intended for tendon repair. A sheep tendon injury model characterised by a natural history of consistent failure of healing was chosen to assess the biological potential of woven and aligned electrospun fibres to induce a reparative response. Patches were implanted into 8 female adult English Mule sheep. Significant infiltration of tendon fibroblasts was observed within the electrospun component of the patch but not within the woven component. The cellular infiltrate into the electrospun fibres was accompanied by an extensive network of new blood vessel formation. Tendon fibroblasts were the most abundant scaffold-populating cell type. CD45(+), CD4(+) and CD14(+) cells were also present, with few foreign body giant cells. There were no local or systemic signs of excessive inflammation with normal hematology and serology for inflammatory markers three months after scaffold implantation. In conclusion, we demonstrate that an endogenous healing response can be safely induced in tendon by means of biophysical cues using a woven and electrospun patch.