We constrain the nebular attenuation curve and investigate dust geometry in star-forming galaxies at cosmic noon using photometric medium-band emission line measurements. We measure H-alpha emission line fluxes for a sample of 209 star-forming galaxies at 1.2<z<2.4 in MegaScience/UNCOVER with stellar masses spanning 7.85<log_10(M_*/M_⊙)<11.0. For 66 of these galaxies, we also measure a Pa-beta flux. We find that the Pa-beta/H-alpha line ratio increases strongly with stellar mass and star-formation rate (SFR) across our full mass range, indicating that more massive galaxies are dustier. We compare our results with a mass-, SFR-, and redshift-matched sample of galaxies from the MOSDEF survey with spectroscopic measurements of H-alpha/H-beta, finding that a shallow Reddy et al. (2025) nebular attenuation curve is more consistent with our observations than the typically assumed Cardelli et al. (1989) attenuation curve, especially for massive galaxies. This shallow attenuation curve could be explained by low dust covering fractions in star-forming regions. Through comparison to other studies, we show that assuming this shallower attenuation curve can increase the inferred A_Halpha,neb by up to 1 magnitude at high masses. We observe no trend between A_Halpha,neb and axis ratio, indicating that nebular attenuation is likely localized to small clumps. Altogether, our results strongly suggest that dust geometry is patchy and non-uniform, especially in massive galaxies. Our results highlight the ability of JWST medium bands to probe emission lines for large samples of galaxies, and statistically constrain dust properties in upcoming large programs.

While bursty star formation in low-mass galaxies has been observed in local populations and reproduced in simulations, the dormant phase of the burst cycle has not been well studied beyond the local Universe due to observational limitations. We present a unique sample of 43 JWST PRISM spectra of low-mass galaxies ( M _⋆ < 10 ^9.5 M _⊙ ) at cosmic noon (1 < z < 3), uniformly selected on F200W magnitude and precise photometric redshifts enabled by 20-band JWST photometry from the UNCOVER and MegaScience surveys. The spectra reveal numerous strong Balmer breaks, which are negatively correlated with the galaxies’ H α equivalent width. By comparing these observations to synthetic samples of spectra generated using a simple parameterization of bursty star formation histories, we show that star formation in low-mass galaxies at cosmic noon is likely dominated by burst cycles with long timescales (≳100 Myr) and large deviations below the star-forming main sequence (≳0.8 dex). Our results suggest that galaxies in this population—at least those within our detection limits—should not be classified solely by their current star formation rates, but instead viewed as a unified population undergoing dynamic movement above and below the star-forming main sequence. The derived constraints demonstrate that long-timescale fluctuations are important for this class of galaxies, indicating that galaxy-scale gas cycles—rather than molecular-cloud-scale stochasticity—are the primary regulators of star formation variability in low-mass galaxies at cosmic noon.

While the size-mass relation provides insight into the structural evolution of galaxies, the data available and methods employed have hindered our ability to study a detailed and comprehensive description of this key relation across cosmic history. The first paper in this series presents a morphology catalog based on 20 band JWST data in the field of Abell 2744. In this paper we utilize this catalog to measure the size-mass relation from 0.510, we discuss three distinct phases: Rapid growth at z>5, growth that mimics dark matter halos at 5< z <1 and a late plateau at 0.51. Our results imply that quiescent galaxies are smaller than their star-forming counterparts only at around log M_*/M_⊙ = 10; the two populations have similar sizes at lower and higher masses.

We present the number density of massive ( log ( M * / M ⊙ ) > 10.3 ) quiescent galaxies at 2 < z < 5 using JWST NIRSpec PRISM spectra. This work relies on spectra from RUBIES, which provides excellent data quality and an unparalleled, well-defined targeting strategy to robustly infer physical properties and number densities. We identify quiescent galaxy candidates within RUBIES through principal component analysis and construct a final sample using star formation histories derived from spectrophotometric fitting of the NIRSpec PRISM spectra and NIRCam photometry. By inverting the RUBIES selection function, we correct for survey incompleteness and calculate the number density of massive quiescent galaxies at these redshifts, providing the most complete spectroscopic estimates prior to cosmic noon to date. We find that early massive quiescent galaxies are surprisingly common (≳10 −5 Mpc −3 by 4 < z < 5), which is consistent with previous studies based on JWST photometry alone and/or in smaller survey areas. We compare our number densities with predictions from six state-of-the-art cosmological galaxy formation simulations. At z > 3, most simulations fail to produce enough massive quiescent galaxies, suggesting the treatment of feedback and/or the channels for early efficient formation are incomplete in most galaxy evolution models.

Little red dots (LRDs) are an abundant population of compact high-redshift sources with red rest-frame optical continua, discovered by the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). Their red colors and power sources have been attributed either to dust reddening of standard hot accretion disks or to intrinsically cool thermal emission from dense hydrogen envelopes, in both cases surrounding accreting supermassive black holes. These scenarios predict order-of-magnitude differences in emission temperature but have lacked decisive temperature diagnostics. Here we report a prominent absorption feature at rest-frame ∼ 1.4 μm in two out of four LRDs at z ∼ 2 with high signal-to-noise JWST spectra, among the coolest from a large LRD sample. The feature matches the shape and wavelength of the water absorption band seen in cool stars. Atmosphere models require T ≲ 3000 K to reproduce it, confirming unambiguously the presence of a cool, dense gas component contributing 20-30% to the emergent continuum. A composite model reproduces both the absorption and the rest-frame optical-to-infrared continuum shape and suggests a temperature range (∼2000 K - 4000 K) rather than a single blackbody predicted by some gas envelope models. Molecular absorption demonstrates that the red continua of some LRDs are intrinsic rather than dust-reddened, implying order-of-magnitude lower bolometric luminosities and black-hole masses, and providing a new diagnostic of the emitting gas.

We report the discovery of two z similar to 12 galaxy candidates with unusually red UV slopes (beta(UV) greater than or similar to -1.5), and probe the origin of such colors at cosmic dawn. From Prospector fits to the UNCOVER/MegaScience dataset-deep JWST/NIRCam imaging of A2744 in 20 broad- and medium bands-we identify several new z > 10 galaxies. Medium-band data improve redshift estimates, revealing two lensed (mu similar to 3.3) z similar to 12 galaxies in a close pair with beta(UV) greater than or similar to -1.5 at an UV absolute magnitude of M-UV similar to -19 mag, lying away from typical scatter on previously known M-UV-beta(UV) relations. Spectral energy distribution fitting with Prospector, Bagpipes, and EAZY support their high-z nature, with probability of low-z interlopers of p(z < 7) < 10%. The potential low-z interlopers are z similar to 3 quiescent galaxies (QGs), but unexpected to be detected at the given field of view unless z similar to 3 QG stellar mass function has a strong turn up at log M-*[M-circle dot]similar to 9 . Unlike typical blue high-redshift candidates (beta(UV) less than or similar to -2.0), these red slopes require either dust or nebular continuum reddening. The dust scenario implies A(V) similar to 0.8 mag, which is larger than theoretical predictions, but is consistent with a dust-to-stellar mass ratio ( log M-dust/M-*similar to-3 ). The nebular scenario demands dense gas ( logn(H)[cm(-3)]similar to 4.0 ) around hot stars ( log T-eff[K]similar to 4.9 ). Spectroscopic follow-up is essential to determine their true nature and reveal missing galaxies at the cosmic dawn.

New populations of red active galactic nuclei (known as “little red dots”) discovered by JWST exhibit remarkable spectral energy distributions. Leveraging X-ray through far-infrared observations of two of the most luminous known little red dots, we directly measure their bolometric luminosities. We find evidence that more than half of the bolometric luminosity likely emerges in the rest-frame optical, with L _bol / L _5100 = 5, roughly half the value for “standard” active galactic nuclei. Meanwhile, the X-ray emitting corona, UV-emitting blackbody, and reprocessed mid to far-infrared emission are all considerably subdominant, assuming that the far-infrared luminosity is well below current measured limits. We present new bolometric corrections that dramatically lower inferred bolometric luminosities by a factor of 10 compared to published values in the literature. These bolometric corrections are in accord with expectations from models in which gas absorption and reprocessing are responsible for the red rest-frame optical colors of little red dots. We discuss how this lowered luminosity scale suggests a lower mass scale for the population by at least an order of magnitude (e.g., ∼10 ^5 –10 ^7 M _⊙ black holes, and ∼10 ^8 M _⊙ galaxies), alleviating tensions with clustering, overmassive black holes, and the integrated black hole mass density in the Universe.

The discovery of a population of massive, ancient quiescent galaxies within the first 2 Gyr of the Universe's history has led to significant tensions with models of galaxy formation. However, these analyses are often based on slit spectroscopy, which typically captures only the center-most region of these galaxies and, crucially, assumes these cores are representative of the entire galaxy. To illustrate the varying stellar populations present throughout these galaxies, we present an analysis of color gradients in four z>3, log(M_⋆/M_⊙)>11 quiescent galaxies which previous works have argued are in tension with models. Using medium-band photometry from MINERVA JWST observations, we measure resolved photometry in a series of elliptical annuli out to 0.7^'' (∼4 R_e). We find negative color gradients in three galaxies, and for the most extreme color gradient (Δ(U-V)/ΔR=-0.126±0.030 mag kpc^-1), we find the stellar mass is 0.1 dex lower when compared to photometry measured within NIRSpec slits. In the limiting case where these color gradients are entirely driven by age, we find lessened tensions with extreme value statistics models out to z∼9.5, though different stellar population modeling choices also contribute significantly. Ultimately, these findings highlight the need for integral field unit spectroscopy. Spatially-resolved spectra can provide the evidence needed to break the age–dust–metallicity degeneracy, and reliably separate the effects of the observed color gradients from the effects of different physical modeling assumptions on the formation histories of these galaxies.

Globular clusters (GCs) are some of the oldest bound structures in the Universe, holding clues to the earliest epochs of star formation and galaxy assembly. However, accurate age measurements of ancient clusters are challenging due to the age-metallicity degeneracy. Here, we report the discovery of 36 compact stellar systems within the 'Relic', a massive, quiescent galaxy at z=2.53. The Relic resides in an overdensity behind the Abell 2744 cluster, with a prominent tidal tail extending towards two low-mass companions. Using deep data from the UNCOVER/MegaScience JWST Surveys, we find that clusters formed in age intervals ranging from 8 Myr up to ∼2 Gyr, suggesting a rich formation history starting at z∼10. While the cluster-based star formation history is broadly consistent with the high past star formation rates derived from the diffuse host galaxy light, one potential discrepancy is a tentative ∼2-3× higher rate in the cluster population for the past Gyr. Taken together with the spatial distribution and low inferred metallicities of these young-to-intermediate age clusters, we may be seeing direct evidence for the accretion of star clusters in addition to their early in situ formation. The cluster masses are high, ∼10^6-10^7 M_⊙, which may explain why we are able to detect them around this likely post-merger galaxy. Overall, the Relic clusters are consistent with being precursors of the most-massive present-day GCs. This unique laboratory enables the first connection between long-lived, high-redshift clusters and local stellar populations, offering insights into the early stages of GC evolution and the broader processes of galaxy assembly.

We present spectrally-resolved structural parameter measurements of 29,608 sources from the legacy lensing field of Abell 2744, quantifying global structures from observed 0.7 μm - 4.8 μm and spanning rest-frame UV to NIR at R∼15. These measurements are made on imaging mosaics mainly from the UNCOVER/MegaScience survey, including 20 JWST NIRCam broad and medium bands. We perform single-component Sérsic fitting to these galaxies using , a Bayesian structural fitting tool, to infer their structural parameters and associated random uncertainties from the posterior distributions. Through various quality evaluation criteria, we infer robust structural parameters among > 90% of the selected SNR>10 sources. For each galaxy with reliable sizes in at least two bands and a high-quality redshift, we fit its observed size as a function of wavelength and infer rest-frame UV, optical, and near-infrared sizes where applicable. By performing injection-recovery tests on simulated galaxy cutouts in selected bands, we establish that our structural parameter measurements achieve fractional error < 10 -20% above SNR>10. With this paper, all raw structural measurements and fitted rest-frame sizes are quality-flagged, cataloged, and released to the community. Finally, we demonstrate that this catalog enables the structural study of galaxies over an unprecedentedly wide parameter space of redshift (0.3

Star formation timescales are key to understanding fundamental physics like feedback mechanisms, as well as the abundance of bright galaxies at z>10. We investigate galaxy star formation histories (SFHs) and their evolution across z∼3–9 by measuring the line-to-UV ratio () and line equivalent width (EW) of and directly from UNCOVER/MegaScience spectro-photometry without relying on a specific SFH or nebular line modeling. Our photometric measurements recover and EW to <10% systematic accuracy compared to spectroscopy. This allows us to construct a large mass- (and flux-) complete sample and quantitatively examine how evolves with redshift and stellar mass. We find that the intrinsic scatter in does not significantly evolve with redshift across 310. This suggests that no significant evolution in star formation burstiness is required to explain the abundance of UV-bright galaxies at high redshift.

We explore the physical properties of five massive quiescent galaxies at z ∼ 2.5, revealing the presence of nonnegligible dust reservoirs. JWST NIRSpec observations were obtained for each target, finding no significant line emission; multiple star formation tracers independently place upper limits between 0.1 and 10 M ⊙ yr −1 . Spectral energy distribution modeling with Prospector infers stellar masses of log 10 [ M / M ⊙ ] ∼ 10 − 11 and stellar-mass-weighted ages between 1 and 2 Gyr. The inferred mass-weighted effective radii ( r eff ∼ 0.4–1.4 kpc) and inner 1 kpc stellar surface densities ( log 10 [ Σ < 1 kpc / M ⊙ kpc 2 ] ≳ 9 ) are typical of quiescent galaxies at z ≳ 2. The galaxies predominately display negative color gradients (redder core and bluer outskirts); for one galaxy, this effect results from a dusty core. Unlike local quiescent galaxies, we identify significant reddening in these typical cosmic noon passive galaxies; all but one require A V ≳ 0.4. This finding is in qualitative agreement with previous studies, but our deep 20-band NIRCam imaging is able to significantly suppress the dust–age degeneracy and confidently determine that these galaxies are reddened. We speculate about the physical effects that may drive the decline in dust content in quiescent galaxies over cosmic time.

JWST has revealed an abundance of compact, red objects at z ≈ 5–8 dubbed “little red dots” (LRDs), whose SEDs display a faint blue UV continuum followed by a steep rise in the optical. Despite extensive study of their characteristic V-shaped SEDs, the nature of LRDs remains unknown. We present a new analysis of the NIRSpec/PRISM spectrum of A2744-QSO1, a triply imaged LRD at z = 7.04 from the UNCOVER survey. The spectrum shows a strong Balmer break and broad Balmer emission lines, both of which are difficult to explain with models invoking exclusively AGN or stellar contributions. Our fiducial model decomposes the spectrum into a post-starburst galaxy dominating the UV-optical continuum and a reddened AGN being subdominant at all wavelengths and contributing at a level of ∼20%. However, this model infers a stellar mass of M _⋆ ≈ 4 × 10 ^9 M _⊙ within a radius of r _e < 30 pc, driving its central density to the highest among observations to date. This high central density could be explained if A2744-QSO1 is the early-forming core of a modern-day massive elliptical galaxy that later puffed up via the inside-out growth channel. The models also necessitate an unusually steep dust extinction law to preserve the strong break strength, though this steepness may be explained by a deficit of large dust grains. It is also probable that these challenges reflect our ignorance of A2744-QSO1's true nature. Future variability and reverberation mapping studies could help disentangle the galaxy and AGN contribution to the continuum, and deeper redder observations could also unveil the dust properties in LRDs.

We present an overview of the MINERVA survey, a 259.8 hour (prime) and 127 hour (parallel) Cycle 4 treasury program on the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). MINERVA is obtaining 8 filter NIRCam medium band imaging (F140M, F162M, F182M, F210M, F250M, F300M, F360M, F460M) and 2 filter MIRI imaging (F1280W, F1500W) in four of the five CANDELS Extragalactic fields: UDS, COSMOS, AEGIS and GOODS-N. These fields were previously observed in Cycle 1 with 7 - 9 NIRCam filters by the PRIMER, CEERS and JADES programs. MINERVA reaches a 5σ depth of 28.1 mag in F300M and covers ∼ 542 arcmin^2, increasing the area of existing JWST medium-band coverage in at least 8 bands by ∼ 7×. The MIRI imaging reaches a 5σ depth of 23.9 mag in F1280W and covers ∼ 275 arcmin^2 in at least 2 MIRI filters. When combined with existing imaging, these data will provide a photometric catalog with 20-26 JWST filters (depending on field) and 26-35 filters total, including HST. This paper presents a detailed breakdown of the filter coverage, exposure times, and field layout relative to previous observations, as well as an overview of the primary science goals of the project. These include uncovering the physics of enigmatic sources hiding in current broadband catalogs, improving systematics on stellar mass functions and number densities by factors of ≳ 3, and resolved mapping of stellar mass and star formation at 1 < z < 6. When complete, MINERVA will become an integral part of the treasury deep field imaging datasets, significantly improving population studies with well-understood completeness, robust photometric redshifts, stellar masses, and sizes, and facilitating spectroscopic follow up for decades to come.

Environmental quenching—where interactions with other galaxies and/or the intracluster medium suppress star formation in low-mass galaxies—has been well established as the primary driver behind the formation of the red sequence for low-mass galaxies within clusters at low redshift ( z < 1). However, it remains unclear whether these mechanisms are active at higher redshifts in protocluster environments that are not yet fully virialized. In large part, this regime has remained unexplored due to observational limitations; however, JWST has recently opened a new window into the role of environmental quenching on low-mass (log( M _⋆ / M _⊙ ) < 9.0) galaxies at cosmic noon (2 < z < 3). Here, we leverage the deep imaging and R ∼ 15 spectrophotometry enabled by the 20 band JWST/NIRCam data from the UNCOVER and MegaScience programs to examine environmental quenching in a newly discovered z ≈ 2.58 protocluster. We compare the star formation histories of 19 low-mass quiescent galaxies in the protocluster to a matched sample of 18 in the field and find no significant differences. This similarity extends to galaxy sizes and quenched fractions, which also show no significant differences between the two environments across the full stellar mass range (8.5 < log( M _⋆ / M _⊙ ) ≤ 11.0). This indicates that the protocluster has not yet accelerated quenching relative to the field and is consistent with expectations that z > 2 protoclusters have yet to virialize and develop a dense enough environment required to efficiently quench low-mass galaxies.

JWST has revealed diverse new populations of high-redshift ( z ∼ 4–11) active galactic nuclei (AGNs) and extreme star-forming galaxies that challenge current photoionization models. In this paper, we use rest-frame UV emission-line diagnostics to identify AGN candidates and other exceptional ionizing sources, complementing previous studies predominantly focused on broad-line AGNs. From a parent sample of 205 z _spec > 3 UNCOVER galaxies with NIRSpec/PRISM follow-up, we identify 12 galaxies with C IV , He II , and/or C III ] emission. Three of these galaxies also exhibit clear N III ] and/or N IV ] lines. Leveraging the combined rest-optical and UV coverage of PRISM, we limit the emission-line model space using the sample’s [O III ]/H β distribution, significantly decreasing the overlap between AGN and star formation models in the UV diagnostics. We then find that the five He II emitters are the strongest AGN candidates, with further support from two [Ne v ] detections and one X-ray detection from Chandra. Our Balmer line fits also reveal one new broad-line AGN at z = 6.87. We cannot robustly quantify the AGN fraction in this sample, but we note that close to 20% of M _* > 2 × 10 ^9 M _⊙ parent sample galaxies are AGN candidates. The lower-mass line emitters, which are consistent with both AGN and star-forming photoionization models, have more compact sizes and higher specific star formation rates than the parent sample. Higher-resolution and deeper data on these UV line emitters should provide much stronger constraints on the obscured AGN fraction at z > 3.

We present a study of the size growth of the red sequence between 0.510, whereas half-mass radii are derived from the F444W profiles together with the F277W-F444W color-M_*/L relation. We investigate the dependence of the ratio r_e, mass/r_e, light on redshift, stellar mass, and the wavelength used to measure r_e, light, also separating the sample into younger and older quiescent galaxies. Our data demonstrate that rest-frame infrared sizes accurately trace mass-weighted sizes while sizes measured at rest-frame optical wavelengths (0.5-0.7μm) are 0.1-0.2 dex larger, with only minor variations in redshift. We find that the average size of young quiescent galaxies agrees with that of old quiescent galaxies at intermediate masses, 10

JWST observations have uncovered a new population of red, compact objects at high redshifts dubbed "little red dots" (LRDs), which typically show broad emission lines and are thought to be dusty active galactic nuclei (AGNs). Some of their other features, however, challenge the AGN explanation, such as prominent Balmer breaks and extremely faint or even missing metal high-ionization lines, X-ray, or radio emission, including in deep stacks. Time variability is another robust test of AGN activity. Here, we exploit the z = 7.045 multiply imaged LRD A2744-QSO1, which offers a particularly unique test of variability due to lensing-induced time delays between the three images spanning 22 yr (2.7 yr in the rest-frame), to investigate its photometric and spectroscopic variability. We find the equivalent widths (EWs) of the broad H alpha and H beta lines, which are independent of magnification and other systematics, to exhibit significant variations, of up to 18 +/- 3% for H alpha and up to 22 +/- 8% in H beta, on a timescale of 875 d (2.4 yr) in the rest-frame. This suggests that A2744-QSO1 is indeed an AGN. We find no significant photometric variability beyond the limiting systematic uncertainties, so it currently cannot be determined whether the EW variations are due to line-flux or continuum variability. These results are consistent with a typical damped random walk variability model for an AGN such as A2744-QSO1 (M-BH = 4 x 10(7) M-circle dot) given the sparse sampling of the light curve with the available data. Our results therefore support the AGN interpretation of this LRD, and highlight the need for further photometric and spectroscopic monitoring in order to build a detailed and reliable light curve.

The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is revolutionizing our knowledge of z > 5 galaxies and their actively accreting black holes. Using the JWST Cycle 1 Treasury program Ultradeep NIRSpec and NIRCam Observations before the Epoch of Reionization (UNCOVER) in the lensing field A2744, we report the identification of a sample of little red dots at 3 < z (phot) < 7 that likely contain highly reddened accreting supermassive black holes. Using a NIRCam-only selection to F444W < 27.7 mag, we find 26 sources over the similar to 45 arcmin(2) field that are blue in F115W - F200W similar to 0 (or beta (UV) similar to -2.0 for f (lambda) proportional to lambda( beta) ), red in F200W - F444W = 1-4 (beta( opt) similar to +2.0), and are dominated by a point-source-like central component. Of the 20 sources with deep Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) 1.2 mm coverage, none are detected individually or in a stack. For the majority of the sample, spectral energy distribution fits to the JWST+ALMA observations prefer models with hot dust rather than obscured star formation to reproduce the red NIRCam colors and ALMA 1.2 mm nondetections. While compact dusty star formation cannot be ruled out, the combination of extremely small sizes (< r (e) > approximate to 50 pc after correction for magnification), red rest-frame optical slopes, and hot dust can be explained by reddened broad-line active galactic nuclei (AGNs). Our targets have faint M (1450) approximate to -14 to -18 mag but inferred bolometric luminosities of L- bol = 10(43)-10(46) erg s(-1), reflecting their obscured nature. If the candidates are confirmed as AGNs with upcoming UNCOVER spectroscopy, then we have found an abundant population of reddened luminous AGNs that are at least ten times more numerous than UV-luminous AGNs at the same intrinsic bolometric luminosity.

Luminous broad H alpha emission and red rest-optical spectral energy distributions (SEDs) are the hallmark of compact little red dots (LRDs), implying highly attenuated dusty starbursts and/or obscured active galactic nuclei (AGN). However, the lack of observed far-infrared (FIR) emission has proved difficult to reconcile with the implied attenuated luminosity in these models. Here, we utilize deep new Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array imaging, new and existing JWST/MIRI imaging, and archival Spitzer/Herschel imaging of two of the rest-optically brightest LRDs (z = 3.1 and z = 4.47) to place the strongest constraints on the IR luminosity in LRDs to date. The detections at lambda rest = 1-4 mu m imply flat slopes in the rest-IR, ruling out a contribution from hot (T greater than or similar to 500 K) dust. Similarly, FIR nondetections rule out any appreciable cold (T less than or similar to 75 K) dust component. Assuming energy balance, these observations are inconsistent with the typical FIR dust emission of dusty starbursts and quasar tori, which usually show a mixture of cold and hot dust. Additionally, our [C ii] nondetections rule out typical dusty starbursts. We compute empirical maximum IR SEDs and find that both LRDs must have log(LIR/L circle dot)less than or similar to 12.2 at the 3 sigma level. These limits are in tension with the predictions of rest-optical spectrophotometric fits, be they galaxy-only, AGN-only, or composite. It is unlikely that LRDs are highly dust-reddened intrinsically blue sources with a dust temperature distribution that conspires to avoid current observing facilities. Rather, we favor an intrinsically redder LRD SED model that alleviates the need for strong dust attenuation.