Collegiate athletic trainers continue to report adherence to physical rehabilitation programs to be a problem in collegiate athletics, as rehabilitation adherence among collegiate athletes can range between 40% and 90%. Inconsistent appropriate adherence to these programs may limit patients’ ability to successfully recover from their sports injuries. This study sought to understand if differences in perception of rehabilitation adherence existed between athletic trainers and collegiate athletes. A nonsignificant fair inverse correlation was found between the athletic trainer perceptions and patient self-perceptions of rehabilitation adherence after an examination of 19 separate physical rehabilitation programs led by 5 collegiate athletic trainers ( R = −.48, p = .06). Given the found practitioner–patient disconnect, collegiate athletic trainers should consider further encouraging patient involvement within their rehabilitation programs through various tactics such as the use of patient-rated outcomes or conversations that minimize patient distress.

Background: The prevalence of mental health (MH) disorders among college-aged young adults is alarmingly high, with many also experiencing poor physical health and comorbidities. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of exercise on MH among college students. Materials and methods: Fifteen participants (60% males, 20.0 ± 2.0 years) participated in this 8-week study. Nine participants completed the exercise (EX) intervention, while 6 formed the non-exercise control (CON) group. The Depression Anxiety Stress Scores (DASS-21) instrument was used to collect data for the dependent variable and analyzed using linear mixed models (LMM). Results: No statistically significant differences were found in depression (F = 0.015, p = 0.904), anxiety (F = 1.038, p = 0.327), and overall MH (F = 0.266, p = 0.615) scores between groups or over time. The EX group’s pre/post scores (mean ± standard deviation) for depression (pre: 1.11 ± 2.62, post: 2.44 ± 5.34), anxiety (pre: 1.00 ± 0.87, post: 3.11 ± 2.52), and overall MH (pre: 3.33 ± 5.34, post: 8.55 ± 13.06). The CON group’s pre/post scores for depression (pre: 0.66 ± 1.21, post: 2.32 ± 3.83), anxiety (pre: 1.67 ± 2.40, post: 5.16 ± 6.49), and overall MH (pre: 4.33 ± 4.23, post: 13.33 ± 16.91). Conclusion: Although there were no statistically significant differences in depression, anxiety, and overall MH scores between the EX and CON groups, the findings may have practical implications. Notably, the anxiety and overall MH scores in the CON group exceeded the normal classification, and the EX group maintained normal scores throughout the 8-week intervention. These findings suggest that regular exercise likely plays a crucial role in sustaining MH status, highlighting its importance as a preventive measure rather than solely a therapeutic intervention.

Introduction: The noted prevalence of depressive and anxious symptomology both pre-injury and post-injury in collegiate athletes raises concern regarding their ability to maintain appropriate rehabilitation adherence in their recovery from sports injury. The purpose of this study was to further explore the effect of depressive and anxious collegiate athlete symptoms on athletic trainers’ perceptions of rehabilitation adherence and return-to-play. Methods: NCAA Division II and Division III injured collegiate athletes (N = 19, M age = 20.58 ± 1.31) were observed throughout their rehabilitation programs by 5 separate collegiate athletic trainers. Collegiate athlete depressive and anxious symptoms were assessed during preseason retroactively, at the beginning of rehabilitation, and at clearance for full sports participation. Individual athletic trainers most responsible for the rehabilitation programming of their respective collegiate athletes were asked to provide their perceptions of rehabilitation adherence at the end of the programs. Depressive and anxious symptoms were measured with the use of the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, and athletic trainer perceptions were measured using the Rehabilitation Adherence Measure for Athletic Training. Results: Significant differences were found between the mean symptom scores of HADS 1 and HADS 2 (P = .001) and the mean symptom scores of HADS 1 and HADS 3 (P = .004), thus indicating that depressive and anxious symptoms increased post-injury, but they did not return to preseason levels upon clearance for full sports participation. Collegiate athletes with less depressive and anxious symptoms took on average 70.33 ± 19.87 less days than their more depressed and anxious counterparts to recover from sports injury (P = .010). Depressive and anxious symptoms did not influence the perceptions that the athletic trainers shared relevant to rehabilitation adherence. Discussion: Injured collegiate athletes may be physiologically ready to return to sport far sooner than they are psychologically ready. Collegiate athletic trainers should make a conscious effort to improve the effectiveness of their currently utilized psychosocial interventions to better address the patient depressive and anxious symptoms that they may not be as cognizant of in the rehabilitation process, given the importance of appropriate rehabilitation adherence in producing positive outcomes.

Repeat sprints can be defined as repetitive acts of high intensity movements followed by short rest periods. This is the main mode of locomotion in most field and court based sports. Repeat sprint ability (RSA) is a measurable characteristic of an athlete that refers to their ability to recover and maintain maximal sprint speeds over multiple attempts. Fatigue is an influencing factor on RSA, increases in core temperature have been suggested to be a major contributor to fatigue. Precooling has demonstrated efficacy in lowering the body’s core temperature prior to exercise. PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of an ice slurry beverage in a precooling protocol on RSA. Methodology: Fifteen recreationally active college aged males (21.8 ± 2 years) participated in the study. The pre-cooling protocol consisted of control (no beverage intake), ingesting room temperature water or an ice slurry (7.5 g/kg of bodyweight) in 3-10 minute increments for 30 minutes prior to the start of exercise. Following the precooling, subjects completed a 5x40m sprint protocol with 30s of passive recovery. RPE, core temperature and sprint time were all recorded after every sprint with mean sprint time and fatigue index also being calculated. RESULTS: Pre-Cooling using an ice slurry significantly decreased core temperature compared to the control group (p = 0.02). There was no significant difference in peak or mean sprint times between conditions, p = 0.75 and p = 0.96 respectively. Additionally, there was no difference between conditions for fatigue index (p = 0.99) and RPE (p = 0.59). CONCLUSION: Pre-cooling protocol consisting of an ice slurry was effective at lowering core temperature vs the control condition. However, this did not yield any significant differences in RSA for our subjects. Research with a repeat sprint protocol inducing more thermal strain should be conducted to further investigate the potential benefits of pre-cooling.

Moir, GL, Munford, SN, Snyder, BW, and Davis, SE. Mechanical differences between adolescents and adults during two landing phases of a drop jump task. J Strength Cond Res 36(4): 1090-1098, 2022-The mechanical differences between the first and second landing phases of a drop jump (DJ) task performed by adolescent and adult male players were investigated. Eleven adolescent basketball players (age: 16.5 +/- 0.7 years) and 11 resistance-trained adults (age: 22.3 +/- 1.9 years) performed DJs from a height of 0.40 m. Force plates and a 3-dimensional motion analysis system were used to determine mechanical variables, including landing velocity, normalized vertical stiffness, normalized peak impact force, and work as well as mechanical characteristics of the hip, knee, and ankle joints during the absorption phase of each landing. The adolescents produced greater peak impact forces (mean difference [x over bar (Diff)] = 42 N center dot kg(0.67); effect size [ES] = 1.15) and vertical stiffness (x over bar (Diff) = 126 N center dot kg(0.67)center dot m(-1); ES = 1.28) during shorter absorption phases (x over bar (Diff) = 0.09 seconds; ES = 2.67) compared with the adults, despite their lower landing velocities (x over bar (Diff) = 0.21 m center dot s(-1); ES = 1.37). Furthermore, the adolescents generated greater peak extensor joint moments at the lower-body joints compared with the adults (x over bar (Diff) = 2.3 N center dot m center dot kg(0.67); ES = 1.17), but they did not effectively modulate the energy absorbed by the joint moments in response to the changing demands of the landing tasks. The assessment of the biomechanical characteristics of the 2 landing phases associated with a DJ task revealed that adolescent male basketball players adopt neuromuscular strategies that may increase the risk of incurring musculoskeletal injuries compared with resistance-trained adults.

NCAA Division II women soccer athletes may experience high levels of fatigue which can have a negative impact on their performance during competition. Although coaches agree that monitoring fatigue is an important element in program design, there is not one widely accepted fatigue measure used to monitor women’s soccer training. PURPOSE: To provide an investigation on the preferred mode of action by strength and conditioning coaches to reduce fatigue and increase performance of NCAA Division II women’s soccer players. METHODS: Eight (n=8) head strength and conditioning coaches, two (n=2) women’s soccer coaches, and eighteen (n=18) women’s soccer players from the NCAA Division II PSAC participated in this retrospective qualitative case study from the fall 2019 semester. Strength and conditioning coaches and head women’s soccer coaches participated in a semi-structured interview while women’s soccer players completed an open-ended survey to share their insights to examine the current fatigue monitoring techniques utilized at the NCAA Division II level with all information subsequently analyzed thematically to code the data. RESULTS: All strength and conditioning coaches interviewed believed monitoring fatigue is important (100%) yet only a select number of coaches are currently implementing such fatigue monitoring techniques (38%). Of the fatigue techniques currently being implemented, the women’s soccer players believed the programs did help reduce fatigue (72%) and increase performance (78%). Thematic analysis of the barriers that strength and conditioning coaches face to implement a fatigue monitoring program were also identified which include limited staff, budget, and facilities at the NCAA Division II level. CONCLUSION: With the wide range of fatigue monitoring techniques available, selection and implementation of the most appropriate test based on the various factors at each specific university can provide an effective and productive system to garner the most out of each athlete during training and competition.

Over the past 20 years, the literature has demonstrated that military members are prone to exertional heat illness due to a combination of heavy loads and physical exertion. Solutions such as Cold Water Immersion or Convective Cooling Vests help ease this physiological strain; however, these methods are not always practical for use. These methods require either time, space, equipment or are not cost efficient. A relatively new approach known as precooling, is when an individual either applies a cooling method or ingests a cold substance preemptively to lower core temperature before an activity. PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a precooling protocol employing ice slurry (0±1°C) vs. cold water (4°C) on core body temperature and time to exhaustion (minutes) during a simulated military full combat gear foot march in males aged 18 to 35 years. METHODS: This study consisted of 6 college aged males, (23.5±1.0 y/o, 91.0±9.3 kg, 183.3±8.1 cm), who engaged in two separate simulated army ruck march trials in heated conditions (33±2°C). The researchers used a precooling protocol of 7.5g/kg of bodyweight of both water (control) and ice-slurry (experimental) administered over a 30-minute period prior to activity. Following the precooling protocol, the participants self-selected a pace from 3.0-4.0 MPH and walked for up to 90 minutes or until volitional fatigue inside a heat tent while wearing full army combat gear. Core temperature, heart rate and RPE were collected every 5 minutes. Blood pressure was collected pre and post exercise. RESULTS: This is preliminary data of an on-going study. There was no significant difference in time to exhaustion (p = 0.227; t = -1.37), heart rate (p = 0.763; f = 0.001) or core temperature (p = 0.876; f = 0.20) between conditions. CONCLUSION: The precooling protocol was ineffective at lowering core temperature vs. control and thus did not increase time to exhaustion. Additional research on precooling with military equipment is needed to further elucidate the potential benefits of precooling on exercise performance and decreasing the risk of exertional heat illness.

The act of overhead throwing is a series of complex tasks that require synergy between multiple joints and muscle groups, lack of this synergy may lead to a decrease in performance and injury over time. In recent years, Kinesio tape has gained popularity as modality for the treatment and prevention of some of these injuries. To date, there is little research that looks at the use of Kinesio Tape in female athletes during the dynamic movement of overhead throwing. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of Kinesio Tape on throwing velocity, accuracy and range of motion, and angle of ball release after the application of Kinesio Tape. METHODS: NCAA Division II softball players (n=9) participated in this study. The study was a randomized crossover design, subjects were either allocated to the control group (no Kinesio Tape) or the experimental group (Kinesio Tape) at their first testing session and then switched for the second testing session. Each subject performed 15 overhead throws approximately 20 feet from the target. Velocity, range of motion and angle of ball release were measured using Dartfish software, and accuracy was calculated based on points earned for hitting different levels of concentric rings. RESULTS: Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences between all variables between the experimental and control conditions. However, when looking at the means there was an interesting trend in the data. Kinesio Taping showed an increase in throwing velocity of .69 m/s (21.3 m/s to 21.99m/s, p=0.480). There was a 92.78-point increase in throwing accuracy from the control, 81.11 points to 173.83 in the experimental group (p=0.092). The Kinesio Taping condition also demonstrated an increase in maximal external rotation from 79.74° to 86.11° (p=0.621). Finally, there was a 1.17° increase in the angle of ball release with Kinesio Taping (148.68° to 149.85°, p=0.732). CONCLUSION: In conclusion, there was an increase in throwing velocity, accuracy and range of motion with the addition of Kinesio Tape during overhand throwing in collegiate softball players. Although the data did not present as statistically significant, it does demonstrate that Kinesio Tape may be a practical way to improve performance.

Exercise is a modality that may result in an elevation of resting metabolic rate (RMR) due to homeostatic disruption. Sprint Interval Training (SIT) exercise is widely recognized as a time efficient, low-volume, high-intensity alternative to endurance training and, in acute phases, may elevate RMR for longer durations. PURPOSE: To compare the effects of an acute bout of SIT vs. steady state (SS) vs. control (CON) on 24-h RMR in recreationally active college-aged males. METHODS: In this randomized crossover design, 13 recreationally active males ages 18-30 yrs. (24.1 ± 2.3) participated in three exercise sessions using an electronically braked cycle ergometer: SIT (5, 30-sec. sprints, interspersed with 4-min. active recovery), SS (70% VO2 peak for 30 min.) and CON. Exercise sessions were separated by one week. All sessions included 7 RMR measurements taken at the same times over a 24-h period (8am resting, 8:50am pre-ex, 10:10am post-ex, 12:10pm 2-h post-ex, 1:00pm 3-h post-ex, 4:00pm 6-h post-ex and 10:10am the following morning 24-h post-ex). RMR comparisons were made using two-way ANOVA with repeated measures. RESULTS: There was a significant main effect for group with regard to RMR (F=5.706; p=.043) with no effect of time (F= 5.351; p=.113) or group x time interaction (F=1.486; p=.066). There was a significant difference between SS (2116 kcal) and CON (1891 kcal) (p=.009) and SIT (2105 kcal) and CON (1891 kcal) (p=.012). SS (2116 kcal) and SIT (2105 kcal) were not different (p=.994). There was a significant effect for time between combined exercise (CE) condition vs. CON when comparing rest to pre (ΔCE = 582 kcal vs. Δ CON = 498 kcal) (p=.002), rest to post-ex (ΔCE = 628 kcal vs. ΔCON = 211 kcal) (p=.034), and rest to 6-h post (ΔCE = 716 kcal vs. ΔCON = 193) (p=.016). There was a significant group x time interaction for CE vs. CON (p = .034). Post-hoc analysis revealed statistical differences in measurements 2-h post (p= 0.018; 455 kcal), 3-h post (p= 0.002; 599 kcal) and a trend towards statistical significance at 6-h post (p= .076; 340 kcal) and 24-h post (p=0.103; 313 kcal). CONCLUSION: A single bout of SIT may significantly elevate post-exercise RMR, and if repeated regularly, may confer longer-term benefits similar to that produced by 30 minutes of SS exercise.

Exercise is often prescribed for weight control; however, it is not uncommon that weight loss is less than expected. Unexpected results may be influenced by compensatory eating behaviors following exercise. PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to examine differences in eating behaviors after steady state (SS) and high intensity (HI) active females. METHODS: Nine, recreationally active college-aged females participated in this study. Prior to testing, subjects completed a VO2max test to individualize exercise. Subjects completed three trials in a randomized order: control (CON), HI exercise, or SS exercise. Each trial took place during the first week of the luteal phase of their menstrual cycle. During the CON trial, subjects remained seated for 30 minutes. During SS, subjects ran on a treadmill at 70% VO2max for 33 minutes. During the HI, trial subjects ran on a treadmill at 90% VO2max for 1 minute then 50% VO2max for 1 minute for 34 minutes. Food intake was recorded 24 hours before and up to 72 hours after each trial. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) was measured prior to and 24, 48, and 72 hours following each trial. A visual analog scale was used to assess appetite before and immediately following each trial. RESULTS: Caloric expenditure was higher during SS (302.78±28.40kcal) and HI (278.39±24.94kcal) compared to CON (68.10±2.94kcal) (p<0.001); however, no differences existed between exercise trials (p=0.53). Caloric intake was not different (p=0.82) between SS (1505.56±135.41kcal), HI (1562.67±118.91kcal), and CON (1485.89±136.52kcal) 24 hours post exercise. Differences in caloric intake were not observed 48 (p=0.42) and 72 hours (p=0.60) post exercise. There were no differences (p=0.55) in RMR 24 hours after SS (1598.98±197.80 kcal), HI (1426.57±66.23 kcal), or CON (1430.83±68.93 kcal). Differences were not observed (p=0.72) in change in appetite following SS (2.89±7.13 mm), HI (8.22±10.57 mm), and CON (0.11±3.74 mm). CONCLUSION: Caloric intake and RMR were not different after SS or HI exercise. Appetite did not significantly change after exercise though large individual variability was observed; the largest change in appetite was observed following HI exercise. Compensatory eating may be highly individualistic and appetite following exercise should be considered further, particularly following HI exercise.

PURPOSE: To assess the validity of the two-point method for estimating one repetition maximums (1RM) in the squat and bench press exercises with varied pairs of loads. METHODS: Thirteen resistance-trained men (age: 21.7±0.4 years; height 1.74±0.07 m; mass: 82.9±9.5 kg; 1-repetition maximum (1RM) back squat: 149.9±20.7 kg; 1RM bench press: 114.8±18.5 kg) performed three trials of squat and bench press using the following percentages of 1RM: 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80%. The order of the loads was counterbalanced across the participants. The mean vertical velocity of the barbell during the concentric phase of each repetition was recorded using a 3-D motion analysis system (Vicon; 200 Hz). Varied loading pairs (20% & 80%, 30% & 70%, 40% & 50%, 40% & 70%,) were selected and regressions were created to estimate 1RMs. Analysis of variance was used to compare differences between the measured and estimated 1RMs for the squat and bench press. RESULTS: No significant differences were found (p>0.05) between estimated and measured 1RMs despite large range of mean differences in the squat (MD: 6.45 kg-27.47kg) and bench press (MD: 1.09 kg-4.32kg). CONCLUSION: The two-point method represents a useful means of estimating 1RM during the back squat and bench press exercises without inducing the fatigue associated with directly measuring 1RM. However, individualized force-velocity characteristics should be considered when utilizing the two-point method for estimating a 1RM.