Tropical cyclones cause thousands of deaths and immense damage annually. While ocean temperatures and atmospheric conditions dominate cyclone formation and behaviour, forests' potential influence has received little systematic attention.In this review I explore and evaluate how forests may affect tropical cyclone incidence, behaviour, and impacts. Evidence strength varies by mechanism and cyclone stage. Post-landfall effects show strongest support: forests demonstrably slow storm decay through surface roughness, reducing wind damage by 20–40% compared to cleared land, while forest soils buffer flooding through enhanced infiltration. Forests also influence storm tracks, though magnitudes remain uncertain.Evidence for pre-landfall effects is more limited but plausible. Forests release massive moisture through evapotranspiration, substantially modifying offshore humidity. Temperature and aerosol effects offer additional pathways. The Biotic Pump theory proposes that large forest areas generate pressure gradients drawing moisture inland, potentially limiting moisture available for ocean storms.Forest influences on cyclone formation and growth should be most evident near the thresholds where small changes matter. This context-dependency reconciles divergent findings and provides a framework for integrating forests into climate risk assessment.Forest conservation offers clear benefits for coastal disaster mitigation through post-landfall protection. Potential effects on cyclone genesis, while uncertain, strengthen the case for forest protection and identify critical research priorities.

Zero-deforestation commitments have transformed the palm oil sector since 2015, yet their effectiveness remains unquantified. Here, we produced 10-m resolution global maps that identify old-growth evergreen forest replaced by industrial and smallholder oil palm before and after 2015. From 2001 to 2024, oil palm replaced 5.86 (95% confidence interval: 5.60–6.11) Mha of forest across 47 countries. Of this deforested area, 73.4% was due to industrial plantations and 88.4% occurred in Sumatra, Borneo, and Peninsular Malaysia. Annual conversion rates fell sharply from 342,567 (326,567–358,874) ha yr⁻¹ in 2001–2015 to 79,945 (71,487–88,402) ha yr⁻¹ in 2016–2024. This deforestation contributed less to total forest loss after 2015, declining from 12.2% to 2.2%. Zero-deforestation commitments reduced oil palm-driven forest conversion but did not eliminate it.

We studied conservation initiatives in Wallacea, a global biodiversity hotspot where numerous endemic plant and animal species are threatened by agricultural and industrial expansion. Seventy per cent of Wallacea's 391 recognized Key Biodiversity Areas lie outside legally protected habitats. Our research explores biodiversity conservation options in six highly biodiverse landscapes where local farmers actively manage production systems subject to overlapping administrative jurisdictions and exposed to intensifying development pressures. For the past decade we have engaged with local communities in these landscapes to identify scenarios that could meet their development needs and also maintain the region's biodiversity. Conservation management will need local institutions able to influence the behaviour of numerous local stakeholders. We conclude that there is a need to provide financial incentives to local people for conservation either through profitable nature-based enterprises adapted to local community skills or by providing conditional cash payments linked to conservation goals. Ecosystem boundaries do not align well with administrative jurisdictions and new institutional arrangements will be needed to meet the goals of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.

The impact of lightning in tropical forests remains uncertain. Specifically, the factors that influence the spatial distribution of lightning damage within forests remain unknown. Here, we investigate the distribution of direct lightning-caused damage across different spatial scales in two Central African forests: a montane forest in Uganda and a lowland forest in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. We surveyed a total of 134 km of forest transects and identified 121 lightning strike locations. First, we investigated at the landscape scale how topography and elevation relate to lightning-caused damage using generalized linear mixed models. Second, we investigated at the stand scale how trees' relative size and species identity affect strike patterns. For this, we compared focal trees (those directly struck) to their immediate neighbours using generalized linear models, testing how relative canopy height, relative crown area and species explained likelihood of showing evidence of strikes. At the landscape scale, we found that trees on ridges were significantly more likely to show lightning-caused damage than those in valleys (beta = -1.44, p = 0.008). At the stand level, greater relative canopy height increased lightning damage probability, particularly in the lowland forest (beta = 1.62, p = 0.001). Crown area also increased lightning damage likelihood in the montane forest, though not in the lowland forest. Species differed in their likelihood to show lightning damage, independent of size. Our findings suggest that ridges shield lower-lying areas, leading to spatially uneven disturbance. In addition, larger and more exposed trees and certain tree species show lightning-caused damage more frequently, suggesting that lightning is a selective phenomena, potentially shaping forest structure and composition.Read the free for this article on the Journal blog. Enkuba omu bibira ebyomushana tibiketejerezibwaga kurungi Kandi titukamanyire kurungi ahabwenki enyaanya emwe erategwa enkuba munonga kukira endijo, omukwega oku, twaturi kureeba oku enkuba zirateera emiti omu bibira bibira bya Africa yarwagati. Kimwe Kiri omu Uganda (Bwindi Impenetrable National Park) Kandi ekindi Kiri omuri Democratic Republic of Congo (Yanyambi). Tutambwire Kilometres 134 omu bibira Kandi twabona enyaanya121 eyi enkuba ziteriremu, omunyaanya yenshozi nobushozi, emiti ekaaba eterigwe enkuba munonga kukira eyo mumpanga. Kirateberezibwa enyaanya ejo kuba ebyaheiguru Kandi eyine embeho nyingi. Habwahati emiti mirengwa Kandi nemihango niyo ekizire kutegwa enkuba munonga. Omuri Yanyambi, emiti mirengwa enyetsire kukira endijo niyo eyine obuzibu bwokuterwa enkuba. Omuri Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, emiti yomubushozi niyo ekizireyo kuterwa enkuba obwira bwingi. Ebiika by emiti nabyo mbyine entanisa nkoku biroreka enkojo zenkuba. Omubugufu, enkuba tekatera emiti yomubibira yoona. Kirarugirira omwanya ogu emiti erimu Kandi hamwe nekika eki emiti erimu. Kandi ekyo kirabasa kuhindura engeri yekibira kirakuramu nebika by emiti ebirakanye. Kake na kati ya zamba ya minene ya tropiki esosolami naino malamu te, mpe toyebi naino te mpo na nini bisika biyike bizali kobetama makasi na kake koleka bisika mosusu. Na mosala oyo ya bolukaluki, totangaki lolenge nini kake ezali kobeta ba nzete kati na bitando mibale ya zamba biye bizuami na Afrika ya katikati-yaliboso ezuami na ekolo ya Uganda (Bwindi) mpe ya mibale ezuami na ekolo ya Kongo Democratiki (Yangambi). Totambolaki kilometele kama yoko tuku misato na mineyi okati ya ba zamba ena mpe tomonaki bisika kama yoko tuku mibale na moko eye ba nzete ebetamaki na kake. Na likolo ya ba ngomba mpe bisika mosusu oyo etombwami likolo, ba nzete mbala ike ebetamaki koleka na lubuaku. Ekoki kozala pamba te bisika bina bizali likolo mpe polele mingi. Na lisanga yoko ya ba nzete, ba nzete ya milayi mpe ya minene ebetamaki mingi mpenza. Ba nzete ya lolenge na lolenge ekeseneki mpe kolandana na ndenge ebebisamaki na kake. Na bokuse, kake ebetaka ba nzete na zamba na lolenge ya pamba pamba te; kake ebetaka obisika biye nzete ezuami mpe kolandana na lolenge ya ba nzete. Kokueya ya kake ozamba ekoki kokonza lolenge nini zamba eko kola mpe lolenge kani ya nzete ekoki kobota koleka.

Many communities sustain natural resources through practices that they initiate and govern themselves. Some of these autonomous conservation practices endure, while others deteriorate under similar pressures. Using a social-ecological systems perspective, we examine how autonomous conservation endures across varying configurations of resource use, local institutions, and broader contextual pressures.We apply fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA) to 58 local practices, spanning forests, marine systems, freshwater, agroforests, farms, and plantations, across eight highland and island communities in Papua and Kalimantan, Indonesia. Drawing on household surveys (n=194), semi-structured interviews, field observations, and group discussions, we assess how combinations of six conditions (resource use, local rules and monitoring, property rights, extractive pressure, market access, and population density) shape endurance.We identify five robust pathways that consistently sustain resources. A sixth marginal pattern shows mixed results under intensive extraction, revealing limits and challenges of managing under extractive pressures. “Rules and monitoring” emerges as a near-necessary condition, but their required strength and form depend strongly on context. Low-pressure settings sustain resources with relatively minimal governance, whereas high population density, market integration, or intensive resource use require stronger and more formalised institutions. By demonstrating multiple pathways to endurance (equifinality) and the conditional limits of local institutions, this study advances understanding of how autonomous conservation persists within complex social-ecological systems, with implications for supporting autonomous conservation globally.

Demand for monitoring the supply and use of natural resources in agriculture is growing. Farming depends on ecosystem services yet contributes to their loss. Ecosystem accounting frameworks help to integrate nature into decision-making by consistently revealing those impacts and dependencies. We apply the United Nations' System of Environmental-Economic Accounting - Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA) to a 38,603-hectare farm in southern Amazonia, Brazil. We assess uncertainties in spatial datasets compared to field data, and evaluate their suitability for the accounts. Our results show that combined spatial and field data allow farm-level monitoring of ecosystem extent, integrity, and services that is consistent with SEEA EA. Farm data effectively capture nitrogen use efficiency and pesticide-related biodiversity risks. Land-use and carbon flows could be tracked with acceptable accuracy with spatial data, while soil variables had to rely solely on field data. Despite these uncertainties, the accounts deliver actionable insights. For farmers who often perceive forest as a burden, the accounts clarify the role of forests in sustaining key services for their rainfed crops, such as rainfall regulation and carbon sequestration with associated climate regulation benefits. Consistent yearly monitoring also supports informed decisions on managing and financing agriculture for better use of natural capital.

Autonomous conservation—local stewardship practices that sustain ecosystems with limited external intervention—remains poorly documented in global nature conservation. Drawing on a rapid assessment of 22 communities and an in-depth study of eight sites in Papua, West Papua, and West Kalimantan, Indonesia, we examined the prevalence, diversity and effectiveness of these practices. We found autonomous conservation in all sites, expressed through diverse forms including taboos, seasonal closures, avoidance, and gear/method restrictions. These practices, motivated by mixed livelihood needs, cultural values, and social norms, are maintained through local rules, enforcement, self-restraint, and deterrence of outsiders. Even as traditional beliefs fade, many practices persist via social norms and cultural memory. Our findings demonstrate that autonomous conservation is widespread and ecologically relevant, providing an overlooked foundation for more inclusive and equitable conservation. Recognising and supporting these practices is essential for effective global strategies.

Tropical forests host considerable biodiversity but face degradation from timber extraction (“logging”). We examined how logging intensity affected tree diversity, species composition, community wood density and availability of timber species in a lowland forest in north-central Vietnam. We measured and identified trees in 18 quarter-hectare plots that vary in historical logging intensity. Tree diversity showed no significant relationships with logging intensity. However, species composition differed, with each logging intensity class having distinct abundant tree species. Community wood density decreased significantly with logging intensity, being 9

Studies can only guide conservation if their findings are informative at the scales at which practitioners and policy-makers operate. Yet, it is rarely tested whether large-scale studies reach similar conclusions to the smaller-scale studies on which conservation traditionally relies. We examine whether predictors of extinction risk are consistent across global, regional, and local scales, for 210 tropical forest mammal species (≥1 kg) that existed during the last 130,000 years, in 64 tropical forests, across three biogeographical realms. We found consistent predictors of extinction risk (body mass, generation length, diet, brain volume, and scansoriality) when analyses differed only in their spatial resolution. However, predictors differed when analyses also varied in their temporal extent. Macroecological findings about extinction risk can, thus, inform conservation at smaller scales, but they risk misidentifying threatened species if differences in temporal extent are not recognized.

ABSTRACT Strangler figs (Ficus spp.) typically establish as epiphytes on host trees before developing ground roots; terrestrial establishment also occurs but is less widely recognised. Here we document abundant terrestrial establishment of strangler figs in burned tropical peat swamp forests of Sumatra, Indonesia. Across 3.4 ha of transects in two post‐fire sites, 97% of 138 strangler fig individuals (representing 10 species) germinated directly on the ground rather than epiphytically. Ficus sundaica dominated, comprising 22% of all trees and 67% of all figs. We find that strangler figs exhibit striking terrestrial establishment ability in degraded peatlands where active planting efforts have largely failed. Given their abundance, flexible establishment mode, and role as keystone species supporting frugivore communities, naturally regenerating strangler figs may facilitate broader ecosystem recovery in fire‐damaged peat swamp forests.

Lightning is an important agent of tropical tree mortality, but field data on lightning-caused disturbances is largely restricted to one lowland tropical forest in Panama. Here we quantified variation in the frequency and severity of visually detectable lightning-caused disturbances across topography in the montane forests of Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda. This was the first systematic assessment of lightning-caused disturbance in any African tropical forest and a preliminary exploration of the association between lightning disturbance frequency and forest tolerance to lightning. Lightning-caused disturbances were observed six times more frequently on ridges (19 strikes across 4.5 km of transects) than in valleys (2 strikes across 2.9 km), but lightning-caused disturbances in valleys tended to cause more tree-level damage than those on ridges (and also kill a higher proportion of the trees affected within each lightning disturbance, although the rarity of disturbances in valleys meant the latter effect was not statistically significant). Overall, lightning disturbances tended to kill a lower proportion of trees in this Afromontane forest than in previously documented lightning disturbances in tropical America. We also observed less tree-level damage to ridge-dominant Syzygium spp. (Myrtaceae) compared to the community-wide average, providing support for taxonomic differences in lightning tolerance. Synthesis. Our results indicate that lightning disturbance severity differs within and among sites, potentially mediated by differences in lightning tolerance among tree species and provide preliminary support for the hypothesis that disturbance severity declines with disturbance frequency. La foudre est un facteur important de mortalit & eacute; des arbres tropicaux, mais les donn & eacute;es de terrain sur les perturbations qu'elle occasionne en for & ecirc;t tropicale sont tr & egrave;s limit & eacute;es; elles sont disponibles uniquement & agrave; la seule for & ecirc;t tropicale de plaine au Panama. Cette & eacute;tude a permis de quantifier la variation de la fr & eacute;quence et de la gravit & eacute; des perturbations caus & eacute;es par la foudre, visibles & agrave; l'oe il nu, en fonction de la topographie dans les for & ecirc;ts de montagne du parc national de Nyungwe, au Rwanda. Il s'agit de la premi & egrave;re & eacute;valuation syst & eacute;matique des perturbations caus & eacute;es par la foudre dans une for & ecirc;t tropicale africaine et d'une exploration pr & eacute;liminaire du lien entre la fr & eacute;quence de ces perturbations et la tol & eacute;rance des for & ecirc;ts & agrave; la foudre. Les perturbations caus & eacute;es par la foudre ont & eacute;t & eacute; observ & eacute;es & agrave; une fr & eacute;quence six fois plus sur les cr & ecirc;tes (19 impacts sur 4.5 km de transects) que dans les vall & eacute;es (2 impacts sur 2.9 km). Cependant, dans les vall & eacute;es, ces perturbations ont eu tendance & agrave; causer davantage de d & eacute;g & acirc;ts au niveau des arbres que sur les cr & ecirc;tes (et & agrave; occasionner une mortalit & eacute; plus & eacute;lev & eacute;e d'arbres par impact, bien que la raret & eacute; des perturbations dans les vall & eacute;es rende ce dernier effet statistiquement non significatif). La tendance globale d & eacute;montre que les perturbations caus & eacute;es par la foudre en for & ecirc;t afro-montagnarde occasionnent une mortalit & eacute; faible d'arbres que celle observ & eacute;e en Am & eacute;rique tropicale. On a & eacute;galement observ & eacute; moins de dommages au niveau d'arbres de l'esp & egrave;ce Syzygium spp. (Myrtaceae) dominante des zones des cr & ecirc;tes, comparativement & agrave; la moyenne de la communaut & eacute;. Cela confirme l'existence de diff & eacute;rences taxonomiques & agrave; la tol & eacute;rance des effets de la foudre. Synth & egrave;se. Les r & eacute;sultats indiquent que la gravit & eacute; des perturbations dues & agrave; la foudre varie au sein d'un m & ecirc;me site et entre diff & eacute;rents sites, potentiellement en raison de diff & eacute;rences de capacit & eacute; de tol & eacute;rance & agrave; la foudre entre les esp & egrave;ces d'arbres. Les r & eacute;sultats apportent & eacute;galement un soutien pr & eacute;liminaire & agrave; l'hypoth & egrave;se selon laquelle la gravit & eacute; des perturbations diminue avec leur fr & eacute;quence.

Tropical forests hold most of Earth's biodiversity and a higher concentration of threatened mammals than other biomes. As a result, some mammal species persist almost exclusively in protected areas, often within extensively transformed and heavily populated landscapes. Other species depend on remaining remote forested areas with sparse human populations. However, it remains unclear how mammalian communities in tropical forests respond to anthropogenic pressures in the broader landscape in which they are embedded. As governments commit to increasing the extent of global protected areas to prevent further biodiversity loss, identifying the landscape-level conditions supporting wildlife has become essential. Here, we assessed the relationship between mammal communities and anthropogenic threats in the broader landscape. We simultaneously modeled species richness and community occupancy as complementary metrics of community structure, using a state-of-the-art community model parameterized with a standardized pan-tropical data set of 239 mammal species from 37 forests across 3 continents. Forest loss and fragmentation within a 50-km buffer were associated with reduced occupancy in monitored communities, while species richness was unaffected by them. In contrast, landscape-scale human density was associated with reduced mammal richness but not occupancy, suggesting that sensitive species have been extirpated, while remaining taxa are relatively unaffected. Taken together, these results provide evidence of extinction filtering within tropical forests triggered by anthropogenic pressure occurring in the broader landscape. Therefore, existing and new reserves may not achieve the desired biodiversity outcomes without concurrent investment in addressing landscape-scale threats.

Changes in vegetation cover are occurring across sub-Saharan Africa and can have substantial effects on ecological communities, but limited data make understanding status and trends difficult for many taxa. We surveyed birds for several decades across Uganda using point counts. Using time-to-detection analysis in a trait-informed Bayesian multi-species occupancy framework, we model bird species richness as a function of year and local tree cover across 28 sites. We test for trends in richness and occupancy, and for the relationship between these and local and landscape-scale tree cover. Species richness increased at 75% of sites through the study period, and generalist bird species were most likely to be increasing in occupancy. Forest specialist bird species, and to a lesser extent generalists, responded positively to tree cover. Woody cover is changing across Uganda, with declines most pronounced in areas with the highest tree cover. This is likely to be causing declines in forest specialist species while favouring generalists. When tree cover decline is caused by conversion to croplands, rather than transitions to grasslands, grassland specialists are unlikely to benefit. Effects of climate and land use change and population pressure are likely to continue to alter woody plant cover and thus affect East African bird communities.

As interest in tropical forest restoration accelerates, understanding its hydrological implications is increasingly urgent. While concerns persist that reforestation will reduce annual water yields—particularly in drier climates—we highlight conditions under which forest landscape restoration (FLR) can improve seasonal water availability, especially during the dry season. We examine the trade-off between increased vegetation water use (“pumping”) and enhanced infiltration and subsurface retention (“sponging”) following forestation of degraded lands, the recovery of vegetation's ability to capture “occult” precipitation (fog) in specific coastal and montane settings, and the role of forest cover in enhancing moisture recycling and transport at multiple scales. A pan-tropical sensitivity analysis shows that in degraded landscapes with deep soils and pronounced rainfall seasonality, infiltration gains following forestation can offset or exceed evaporative losses, thereby supporting groundwater recharge and increasing dry-season flows in approximately 10% of cases, with an additional 8% showing near-neutral (slightly negative) outcomes. These findings challenge the assumption that forestation uniformly reduces water availability and underscore the need to prioritize dry-season flow recovery—rather than annual water yield—as a central hydrological goal of FLR. We call for trans-disciplinary research and long-term monitoring to inform forest restoration strategies, particularly in seasonally dry regions where water scarcity is most acute.

In 2001, only six Bali starlings Leucopsar rothschildi remained in the wild. In 2006, the NGO Friends of Nature, People and Forests established a second population on Nusa Penida Island through the release of captive-bred individuals, installation of nest boxes, and engagement with local communities, an approach later extended to Besikalung Wildlife Sanctuary. In this study, we evaluated breeding success in Besikalung in relation to location and nest box placement and examined the role of local cultural frameworks in supporting conservation. We assessed breeding outcomes from 34 nest boxes across sites and conducted interviews with key local stakeholders. Breeding success differed among locations, indicating that site-specific conditions influence reproductive outcomes. Interviews showed that conservation at Besikalung is reinforced by Indigenous law (awig-awig), grounded in the Balinese philosophy of Tri Hita Karana, and by the symbolic status of the Bali starling as an emblem of Bali, which together strengthen community support for its protection.

While the role of expanding agriculture in deforestation and the loss of other natural ecosystems is well known, the specific drivers in the context of small- and large-scale agriculture remain poorly understood. In this study, we employed satellite data and a deep learning algorithm to map the agricultural landscape of Central Africa (Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon) into large- (including for plantations and intensively cultivated areas) and small-scale tree crops and non-tree crop cover. This permits the assessment of forest loss between the years 2000 and 2022 as a result of small- and large-scale agriculture. Thematic [user’s] accuracy ranged between 91.2 ± 2.5 percent (large-scale oil palm) and 17.8 ± 3.9 percent (large-scale non-tree crops). Small-scale tree crops achieved relatively low accuracy (63.5 ± 5.9 percent), highlighting the difficulties of reliably mapping crop types at a regional scale. In general, we observed that small-scale agriculture is fifteen times the size of large-scale agriculture, as area estimates of small-scale non-tree crops and small-scale tree crops ranged between 164,823 ± 4224 km2 and 293,249 ± 12,695 km2, respectively. Large-scale non-tree crops and large-scale tree crops ranged between 20,153 ± 1195 km2 and 7436 ± 280 km2, respectively. Small-scale cropping activities represent 12 percent of the total land cover and have led to dramatic encroachment into tropical moist forests in the past two decades in all six countries. We summarized key recommendations to help the forest conservation effort of existing policy frameworks.

Local perceptions, concerns, and motivations influence conservation contexts and outcomes. In this study, we explore the beliefs around strangler figs within an Iban community in Indonesian Borneo and clarify how these influence land use and the status and distribution of these keystone tree species. The study was conducted with an Iban community in West Kalimantan in the Sungai Utik Indigenous Forest. We interviewed 32 adults (one per household) regarding their perceptions and behaviors towards strangler figs and applied 16 km of transects (width 100 m) to survey strangler figs in both old growth forest and in farmland-fallow mosaics. Most respondents (30 of 32 or 94%) considered large strangler figs to host various supernatural entities that may be dangerous if disturbed. The community protects these trees from damage wherever they occur. One fig species, Ficus benjamina, is used in healing rituals. We recorded 19 species of strangler figs inside the transects and 25 in total (individuals with woody stems/roots reaching the ground). Similar densities of strangler figs were found in farmland mosaics compared to forest (1.21 vs. 0.90 individuals/ha) with many reaching large sizes (mean canopy diameter 16.46 +/- 8.54 vs. 10.25 +/- 3.17 m). The figs that occur in the farmland mosaic originate in regrowth areas and result in 1% to 2% of the total farmland being protected from clearing. Our study demonstrates the value of integrating cultural and ecological data. Recognizing the significance of strangler figs in this community can inform conservation that sustains both biodiversity and culture.