As reading shifts from paper towards screens, developing readers may benefit from individualised support enabled by digital devices. Using eye tracking data in real-time, we designed a reading support providing similar informational cues as finger-point reading. We tested the effect of dynamically colouring the word under fixation on reading performance. Seventy Danish 2nd graders read aloud a short story both with and without highlighting, while measuring eye movements, pronunciation accuracy, comprehension, and preference. Without highlighting, words were presented in black. With highlighting, black words turned blue, once looked at by the reader. Compared to the non-highlighting condition, reading with highlighting was faster, with shorter fixations, fewer regressions, and reduced re-reading. The improved reading efficiency occurred without compromising pronunciation accuracy or comprehension. Despite more efficient reading with highlighting, participants preferred static black over colour-changing text. Gaze-based word highlighting shows strong potential to enhance reading efficiency in beginner readers.

A general focus within reading research is to isolate individual cognitive and perceptual processes for investigation. By doing so, we gradually increase our understanding of the components that collectively enable humans to read. The aim of this article is to create an overview of some of these findings that could inform the selection of typefaces. We discuss aspects of letter crowding, serifs, inter-letter spacing and letter weight and width, reviewing the literature on reading and perception and contextualising it in relation to reading scenarios involving paragraph reading, small visual angles and glance reading. Although several perceptual aspects can relate to multiple reading scenarios, we conclude that there is no such thing as the most legible typeface, as typeface legibility varies depending on the reading situation.

While Generative AI models like Large Language Models (LLMs) are capable of generating extensive text, their efficacy in producing readable content for human participants in experimental settings remains to be evaluated. Further, eye-tracking technology is increasingly utilized to study cognition and behavior, yet its application to readers' cognitive processes when exposed to AI-generated versus human-authored texts remains unexplored. This study investigates how text generated by LLMs influences reading by analyzing gaze patterns. The study collects gaze data from 13 participants as they read AIgenerated and human-authored passages. A comparative analysis is conducted within subjects to assess gaze patterns between authors and between text types based on the robust two-means clustering (I2MC) algorithm to identify fixations. In addition, pupil dilation and reading speed were examined. Our findings reveal significant differences in fixation characteristics not only between authors but also between AI-generated and human-authored texts.

Native Language Identification from Reading (NLIR) is an emerging interdisciplinary field that leverages eye-tracking technology to investigate how readers’ native languages influence their second language reading behavior. In this study, we replicate a linear logistic regression model for NLIR and introduce an enhanced BERT-based classifier to identify native languages from reading patterns in the MECO-L2 Wave 1 dataset, considering either the full set of nationalities or a targeted subset. Additionally, we examine the effect of new feature sets on the predictive performance of the two models. To address the limited number of participants and ensure robust generalization, we employ a Monte Carlo simulation with 20 randomized splits for training, validation, and testing. Our results, assessed based on precision, recall, F1-score, and accuracy, show that while the linear logistic regression model can achieve performance levels comparable to the BERT-based model—primarily due to the small dataset size constraining BERT’s full training potential—the BERT classifier produces a linguistically more meaningful clustering of native languages, aligning better with findings in the existing literature.

While adaptive reading interfaces are capable of providing flexible typographical adjustments in real-time, readers are challenged to keep track of the context. This paper aims to contribute by introducing context preservation, which enables readers to resume reading faster after applying typographical adjustments, using eye-tracking. Typography adjustments are applied through so-called interventions, and the reading application currently has four intervention designs: Popup, Undo, Notification, and Gradual. To explore howmuch text is required to resume reading quickly, context-preservation functionality was applied and evaluated on 22 participants through within-subjects experiment design. Our findings reveal significant differences in reading-resume time (RRT) between interventions. Furthermore, context-preservation in a gradual intervention mode is the fastest and most liked intervention design by the participants.

The introduction of variable fonts widened the possibilities for font applications and increased the ease with which typographers could manage their designs. Variable fonts enable typographers to easily manipulate letter characteristics that exist on a spectrum such as weight, width, or deviation from the neutral letter form. However, this fluidity may also increase visual complexity, which may contribute to the disfluency effect. This study explores the impact of typeface complexity on automatic reading processes using the well-known Stroop Colour and Word task. We show that automatic reading can be negatively affected by typefaces with extremely complex features, but that moderately complex typefaces have little effect. This suggests hard to read typefaces do impair word reading (i.e. they are disfluent) but that skilled readers are able to tolerate a high degree of complexity. It also highlights the utility of cognitive tests for identifying typefaces that are difficult to read.

Pictograms are graphic symbols designed to function within limited space. They are characterized by overlapping elements within a frame, which can lead to visual crowding, where neighboring objects merge and become indistinguishable. While visual crowding has been extensively studied in reading and vision research, its impact on pictograms remains underexplored. This study aimed to measure the effect of spacing between two icons and between icons and an outline frame on icon recognition. Using Auckland Optotypes to construct fictive pictograms, we conducted an experiment within an object recognition experimental paradigm, involving 25 participants. Results showed significant interaction between the effects of icon-frame distance and the spacing between the two icons, with the most limiting factor for recognition being two icons overlapping or placed in close proximity to each other. Strategic spacing adjustments within framed pictograms can reduce the impact of crowding on recognition, particularly when icons are not overlapping. Keywords: icons, crowding, psychophysics

There is much evidence that familiarity can affect perception of stimuli, with items that are familiar to the individual being preferred and better remembered. Previous research has also shown that familiarity with a typeface increases preference for it, but no studies have evaluated the impact of familiarity in relation to the affect towards handwritten text. For the present study, a two-part experiment (N = 422) was designed to measure how contemporary users of the Latin script perceive handwritten text. The first section was designed to collect specimens of the participants’ handwriting. The second, which was adapted to each participant’s handwriting style, measured implicit judgments of certain familiar letter shapes against unfamiliar ones. Results show that familiarity positively influences the extent to which one judges the friendliness and trustworthiness of handwritten text. Furthermore, the greater the similarity to how one writes a letterform, the greater the observed effect in terms of perceived friendliness. These findings suggest that people have an implicit bias towards handwriting that looks like their own.

In this paper, we discuss concepts in games for and beyond entertainment to promote innovative designs in learning games. When it comes to designing learning games, pedagogies are regarded as a standalone field. This means that global pedagogical theories, including those outside the context of learning games, can be investigated. These theories are crucial for creating efficient learning experiences. Similarly, we argue that games should be investigated holistically, as a field spanning beyond learning games, to design engaging game experiences in learning games. Studies on games for entertainment can enrich the design of games beyond entertainment with new nuances and approaches. On these grounds, we explore a new perspective on failure inspired by Game Studies, shedding light on the concept of "intrinsically integrated games" in the game-based learning discipline. Next, we design a game prototype in which the failure state is used to turn notional failure into a playful learning activity. Subsequently, we briefly introduce a pilot experiment. The experiment was conducted with a functional version of the prototype in Spring 2024 to demonstrate that misspelling and mispronunciation—viewed as failures—can enhance engagement and be a valuable part of games for beginner readers.

Abstract Previous work has shown that letters presented in special fonts with a high degree of script style have a poor recognition rate. We investigated whether there is a breaking point where this deficit sets in. In an experimental paradigm using a three-letter string partial report, 32 participants were presented with test stimuli of four new fonts with gradually increasing script style. The results of our investigation showed that each level of increasing script style resulted in significantly worse recognition. These findings demonstrate that for maximum letter recognition, the font style should be based on simple and familiar letter skeletons.

Reading comprehension is an essential skill. It is unclear whether and to what degree typography and font personalization may impact reading comprehension in younger readers. With advancements in technology, it is now feasible to personalize digital reading formats in general technology tools, but this feature is not yet available for many educational tools. The current study aimed to investigate the effect of character width and inter-letter spacing on reading speed and comprehension. We enrolled 94 children (kindergarten–8th grade) and compared performance with six font variations on a word-level semantic decision task (Experiment 1) and a passage-level comprehension task (Experiment 2). Reading speed and comprehension were analyzed using generalized linear mixed-effects regression models. Independent samples t-tests compared speed and comprehension accuracy on personal best vs. worst font variation. A stability analysis was conducted to determine if participants had a stable personal best font variation within Experiment 1. The Experiment 1 stability analysis was statistically significant, and 58% of participants had a stable personal best font variation. Personal best font variations yielded significantly higher comprehension accuracy in both Experiments 1 and 2 and faster reading in Experiment 2. Using digital technology to personalize font may have important implications for school-aged readers.

Within the last 20 years, gaze interaction has become a successful communication solution for numerous people with motor challenges. In this paper, we present two new cases of gaze interactive assistive technology: i) gaze control of an exoskeleton for stroke rehabilitation, and ii) gaze interactive reading support for people with low vision. By applying a Universal Design approach [Mace 1998] both cases are assessed through an ability analysis to identify issues with gaze interaction specific to our applications that need to be further addressed. Finally, we suggest how solutions in our applications may be mainstreamed for a broader user group.

Glaucoma is a common disease with an increasing prevalence [1]. Ocular surface disease (OSD) is also common, and its prevalence is increasing [2,3], due in part to the adverse effects of topical glaucoma medications [4,5]. Given this glaucoma/OSD association, David A. Sullivan, MS, PhD (Boston, MA, USA) and Amy Gallant Sullivan (Paris, France) on behalf of the Tear Film & Ocular Surface Society (TFOS), and in collaboration with Miriam Kolko, MD, PhD (Copenhagen University Hospital & University of Copenhagen, Denmark), organized a one-day meeting which was held on Saturday, October 22, in Cernobbio, Italy. This meeting focused on the impact of glaucoma medications on the ocular surface, and how OSD can influence glaucoma treatment. The term "ocular surface" encompasses the surface (cornea and conjunctiva), tear film, and adnexa (lacrimal and meibomian glands). The speakers included internationally renowned glaucoma and OSD experts. The evidence-based proceedings of this meeting are presented in this TFOS Experts' Meeting report.

An often-repeated piece of advice when choosing fonts for great legibility is to use fonts with large counters and apertures. To identify effects of open and closed apertures on the letters 'a', 'c', 'e', 'r', 's', 't' and 'f', we ran an experiment using the serif font Pyke as stimulus. The letters in focus were designed for this experiment with three variations of open apertures (Open, Medium and Closed). The experimental paradigm was to present a letter either with or without flankers in the parafovea at 2° eccentricity. The findings showed that participants had more trouble identifying the letter if it was set in a font variation with closed apertures.

Aim: It is a long-lasting dispute whether serif or sans serif fonts are more legible. However, different fonts vary on numerous visual parameters, not just serifs. We investigated whether a difference in word identification can be attributed to the presence or absence of serifs or to the contrast of the letter stroke.Method: Participants performed a word-recognition two-interval, forced-choice task (Exp. 1) and a classic lexical decision task (Exp. 2). In both experiments the word stimuli were set with four new fonts, which were developed to isolate the stylistic features of serif and letter-stroke contrast. Two measures (i.e., font-size threshold & sensitivity) were analysed.Results: The threshold measure of both experiments yielded a single significant main effect of stroke contrast such that low stroke contrast elicited lower than high stroke contrast. The sensitivity measure of Experiment 1 yielded a single significant effect of the interaction between serifs and stroke contrast. Specifically, at the sans-serif level, low stroke contrast revealed better sensitivity, relative to high stroke contrast. At the serif level, the opposite stroke contrast pattern was observed. Conclusion: Sans serif fonts with low stroke contrast yield better performance and if a serif font is used, high stroke contrast yields better performance than low stroke contrast. Limitations and future directions are discussed.

Purpose: Patients with low vision are generally recommended to use the same fonts as individuals with normal vision. However, we are yet to fully understand whether stroke width and serifs (small ornamentations at stroke endings) can increase readability. This study's purpose was to characterize the interaction between two factors (end-of-stroke and stroke width) in a well-defined and homogenous group of patients with low vision.Methods: Font legibility was assessed by measuring word identification performance of 19 patients with low vision (autosomal dominant optic atrophy [ADOA] with a best-corrected average visual acuity 20/110) and a two-interval, forced-choice task was implemented. Word stimuli were presented with four different fonts designed to isolate the stylistic features of serif and stroke width. Results: Font-size threshold and sensitivity data revealed that using a single measure (i.e., font-size threshold) is insufficient for detecting significant effects but triangulation is possible when combined with signal detection theory. Specifically, low stroke contrast (smaller variation in stroke width) yielded significantly lower thresholds and higher sensitivity when a font contained serifs (331 points; d' = 1.47) relative to no serifs (345 points; d' =1.15), E(mu sans, low -mu serif, low) =-14 points, 95 % Cr. I. = [-24,-5], P(delta > 0) = 0.99 and E(mu serif, low -mu sans, low) = 0.32, 95 % Cr. I. = [0.16, 0.49], P(delta > 0) = 0.99. Conclusion: In people with low visual acuity caused by ADOA, the combination of serifs and a uniform stroke width resulted in better text legibility than other combinations of uniform/variable stroke widths and presence/ absence of serifs.

Most text on modern electronic displays is set in fonts of regular letter width. Little is known about whether this is the optimal font width for letter recognition. We tested three variants of the font family Helvetica Neue (Condensed, Standard, and Extended). We ran two separate experiments at different distances and different retinal locations. In Experiment 1, the stimuli were presented in the parafovea at 2° eccentricity; in Experiment 2, the stimuli were presented in the periphery at 9° eccentricity. In both experiments, we employed a short-exposure single-report trigram paradigm in which a string of three letters was presented left or right off-centre. Participants were instructed to report the middle letter while maintaining fixation on the fixation cross. Wider fonts resulted in better recognition and fewer misreadings for neighbouring letters than narrower fonts, which demonstrated that wider letter shapes improve recognition at glance reading in the peripheral visual view. Practitioner summary: Most of the text is set in fonts of regular letter width. In two single-target trigram letter recognition experiments, we showed that wider letter shapes facilitate better recognition than narrower letter shapes. This indicates that when letter identification is a priority, it is beneficial to choose fonts of wider letter shapes.

Low vision readers depend on magnification, but magnification reduces the amount of text that can be overviewed and hampers text navigation. In this study, we evaluate the effects that font variations letter spacing, letter width, and letter boldness have on low vision reading. We tested 20 low-vision patients with age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and used the Radner Reading Chart, which measures reading acuity (logRAD), maximum reading speed, and critical print size. The results demonstrated a small, but measurable effect of letter spacing and letter width on reading acuity near critical font sizes.

To make graphical user interfaces look more fashionable, designers often make use of high-stroke-contrast fonts. We are yet to understand how these fonts affect reading. We examined the effect of letter-stroke contrast on three bold fonts, one with extreme contrast between thick and thin strokes, one with no contrast, and one in between. The fonts were designed for this experiment to enable control of font variables. Participants identified the middle letter in a lowercase letter trigram in each trial, briefly presented in the parafovea (at 2° left and right of fixation) and at the foveal fixation point. There was evidence for letter recognition impairment for the font with high stroke contrast compared to the fonts with low and medium stroke contrast, while there was no significant difference in performance between the medium- and low-stroke-contrast fonts. The results suggest that bold fonts with high stroke contrast should not be considered for designs where letter recognition is a priority.