This study aimed to assess consumer spray products containing target metals, particularly focusing on solution levels and airborne levels after spraying from 124 products in spray products using an Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry and an Inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometer. The spray release method classified consumer products into propellant and trigger types, and air levels were measured at distances of 1 m, 3 m, and 5 m from the clean room. Of the 19 measured target metals, 18 were detected in consumer product solutions, while Cd was not detected. Propellant-type coating products showed higher Si levels than trigger-type coating products (p > 0.05), and Si showed the highest airborne concentrations at 1, 3, and 5 m. Nanomaterials such as Si and Ti were detected in higher levels than other target metals (Pb, Ni, and Cr) at the furthest distance of 5 m. In conclusion, target metals were detected in the product solution and the air. In conclusion, Ti and Si were frequently identified in both product solutions and air samples, indicating their potential relevance for inhalation exposure following spray use. Therefore, consumer spray products should be used with caution and in well-ventilated environments, as airborne metal exposure may occur during spray use.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are increasingly recognized as airborne contaminants of concern, yet their distribution across environments remains under-characterized. In particular, concentrations in industrial settings have hardly been studied compared to general environments. This review synthesizes findings from 25 studies reporting airborne PFAS across four categories: outdoor general environments, indoor general environments, outdoor occupational environments, and indoor occupational environments. Reported levels were generally lowest outdoors (0.5-3.0 ng/m3), higher in general indoor settings (3.0-15.0 ng/m3), and highest in occupational environments, sometimes exceeding 100 ng/m3. Volatile precursors such as fluorotelomer alcohols dominated most environments, while particle-bound ionic PFAS were more common in occupational settings, suggesting distinct exposure pathways. Across studies, airborne PFAS levels were lowest outdoors, higher indoors, and highest in occupational settings. The complexity of PFAS behavior, influenced by chemical species and particle/gas-phase partitioning, underscores challenges in exposure assessment. Despite the relatively low airborne PFAS concentrations, this review confirms that inhalation remains a critical exposure pathway due to the persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity of PFAS. Standardized measurement methods, geographically diverse monitoring, and integration with exposure modeling are urgently needed. Strengthening regulatory frameworks and establishing protective exposure limits will be essential to mitigate long-term health impacts.

Introduction: This study aimed to evaluate the health impact of a smoke free policy implemented in these facilities in the Seoul metropolitan area, focusing on workers’ subjective symptoms in relation to indoor air–related job environment. Materials and methods: Cross-sectional surveys were conducted among 589 workers employed in billiard halls and screen golf clubs located in Seoul in August 2017 (before policy implementation) and August 2018 (after implementation). Associations between job environment factors and work- time symptoms were examined using chi-squared tests or Fisher’s exact tests and multivariable logistic regression, sequentially adjusting for general and work-related characteristics. Across all symptoms, survey year (2018 vs. 2017) was consistently associated with reduced odds of symptom complaints. Results: Facilities operating mechanical ventilation only or combined natural and mechanical ventilation showed significantly lower odds of all symptoms than those relying solely on natural ventilation. In contrast, workers in facilities with a higher number of windows, facilities where cooking was conducted, or those with more smoking customers generally reported higher odds of symptoms. More frequent ventilation (≥5 times per day) tended to reduce respiratory complaints, whereas insufficient or intermittent ventilation was associated with higher symptom prevalence. Conclusion: Smoke-free regulations, appropriate mechanical ventilation and comprehensive indoor air quality management, including control of cooking and outdoor pollutant infiltration, are needed to further protect the health of workers in these environments. These findings support comprehensive indoor air quality management combining smoke-free policies with adequate mechanical ventilation systems in small indoor sports facilities

The COVID-19 pandemic substantially altered urban mobility and air quality in Seoul, but the recovery of socioeconomic activities in the post-pandemic period may have changed the characteristics of roadside particulate pollution. This study examined changes in particulate matter dynamics and their association with traffic volume at a major roadside monitoring station on Gangnam-daero, Seoul, by comparing 2021 and 2024. Hourly concentrations of PM10, PM2.5, and O-3 were analyzed together with traffic volume data, and statistical differences were assessed using the Mann-Whitney U test and Spearman's rank correlation coefficients. PM10 and O-3 did not differ significantly between the two periods, whereas PM2.5 increased from 15.35 +/- 11.90 mu g/m(3) in 2021 to 18.72 +/- 14.34 mu g/m(3) in 2024 (p < 0.001). The PM2.5/PM10 ratio also increased significantly across all diurnal periods, indicating a shift toward a finer particle composition. The increase in PM2.5 was most pronounced in winter, with an average rise of 6.30 mu g/m(3) (p < 0.001), while autumn showed a decrease in absolute concentration but a stronger traffic-PM relationship. Diurnal profiles in 2024 remained consistently higher than in 2021 and were most closely aligned with traffic peaks during the evening commute. Ambient concentrations of PM10, PM2.5, and O-3 were analyzed alongside real-time traffic volume data; however, meteorological normalization was not performed because contemporaneous roadside meteorological observations were unavailable. Therefore, the observed changes should be interpreted as reflecting both traffic recovery and local dispersion conditions. These findings suggest that PM2.5 control should be prioritized during winter and peak traffic hours to reduce roadside exposure risks in the post-pandemic urban environment.

This study evaluated the effectiveness of smoke-free legislation in reducing indoor air pollutants, specifically PM2.5, NO₂, and TVOC, in recreational facilities in Korea. A quasi-experimental before-and-after study was conducted in selected indoor venues, with pollutant levels compared pre- and post-designation of non-smoking areas. Monitoring was performed in three billiard halls and three screen golf ranges in Seoul. PM2.5, NO₂, and TVOC were measured using a Grimm 1.108 aerosol spectrometer (Germany), MEZUS-210/ANA-2 and Teledyne M200E (Korea/USA), and a Sibata MP-Σ30 sampler (Japan). Sampling occurred during operating hours, and results were analyzed using non-parametric tests against Korean standards. After implementation, PM2.5 decreased from 42.8 to 18.6 μg/m³, and NO₂ from 148.3 to 57.9 μg/m³, though reductions were not statistically significant. TVOC showed the clearest improvement, falling significantly from 29.2 to 18.4 ppb (p < 0.01). Smoke-free policies substantially reduced indoor pollutants, particularly TVOC, in recreational facilities. While PM2.5 and NO₂ declines were less consistent, the results highlight both the benefits of smoke-free laws and the need for complementary interventions such as improved ventilation and continuous monitoring.

This study aimed to evaluate the safety of small-scale asbestos dismantling and removal work, especially ceiling tile removal using glove bags (GBs), and to investigate the potential for asbestos dispersion in GBs during ceiling material removal to propose safe work practices and related regulations. Asbestos exposure assessment was conducted at five asbestos-containing ceiling tile dismantling sites nationwide. Air sampling was performed during ceiling tile removal at four points per site: near workers' respiratory tract, at the GB fixed boundary, inside the GB, and within the general work area. Phase contrast microscopy was applied to determine asbestos. The results indicated that airborne asbestos concentrations varied by region, with the highest levels detected inside the GB. Elevated concentrations were also observed near workers' respiratory tract. During ceiling tile removal, asbestos concentrations increased as the number of ceiling tiles removed rose from one to three. Proper sealing of asbestos dust to prevent leakage from the GB is essential, and removing ceiling tiles individually rather than in batches effectively reduces asbestos concentrations.

Indoor air pollutants are associated with adverse health effects in people, particularly children and older adults-the most vulnerable groups health-wise who also happen to spend much of their time in indoor environments. To contribute to knowledge on how these groups can be protected, this study sought to determine the relationships between indoor pollutants (dust endotoxins, airborne bacteria (AB), and particulate matter (PM2.5)) and environmental factors (temperature, relative humidity (RH), use of air conditioners (AC), use of windows, and season). For each pollutant, 360 samples were collected from 31 old-age nursing homes and 31 daycare centers in South Korea. The Mann-Whitney U test, Kruskal-Wallis rank sum, Spearman's rank analysis, and multivariate regression were used to determine whether there were significant differences between indoor pollutants and environmental factors. Dust endotoxin values ranged between < LOD and 632 EU/mL and between 306 and 632 CFU/m(3) for AB, and ranged from 3.9 to 32.5 g/m(3) for PM2.5. Dust endotoxin levels showed a significant relationship with RH and season in the multiple regression analysis. Periodic AC filter cleaning and exchange, as well as proper RH management in these facilities may help reduce indoor biological pollutants. The findings of this study are informative for addressing the respiratory health issues of older people and children in indoor facilities.

This study aims to propose standards and policy recommendations for the use of glove bags and small containment units to enhance worker safety in small-scale asbestos removal work. Asbestos, classified as a Group 1 carcinogen, was widely used in construction materials during the 1970s and 1980s, posing ongoing health risks. In South Korea, there is a lack of clear standards for small-scale asbestos removal, and while glove bags are being used, there are no established guidelines or methods for their use, resulting in insufficient worker protection. This study compares and analyzes the standards for asbestos removal work in the EU(European Union), the UK, the USA, Australia, and South Korea. Most countries define small-scale work based on the nature and scale of tasks and recommend the use of glove bags or small containment units. In contrast, South Korea lacks legal definitions and standards for small-scale work, which limits the protection of workers. Therefore, this study proposes deriving applicable standards for small-scale asbestos removal in South Korea and suggests including the use of glove bags and small containment units in legal frameworks. Specifically, revisions to the Occupational Safety and Health Act are necessary to clearly define small-scale work and establish safety standards. In conclusion, there is an urgent need to establish clear and specific standards for small-scale asbestos removal in order to improve both work efficiency and worker safety.

We measured the levels of airborne endotoxins in South Korea and compared them to PM10, PM2.5, and O3 levels in ambient environments; environmental factors affecting these levels were also analyzed. A total of 81 air samples were collected and analyzed using the kinetic Limulus Amebocyte Lysate (LAL) assay. The geometric mean was determined for the levels of endotoxin (0.132 EU m–3), PM10 (51.9 µg m–3), PM2.5 (22.6 µg m–3), and O3 (0.018 ppm). The endotoxin levels were significantly higher in fall and winter than in summer. The levels of PM10 and PM2.5 were significantly higher, and the level of O3 was by far its highest, in spring. Negative correlations were found between the endotoxin and O3 levels (r = –0.491) and between the endotoxin levels and temperature (r = –0.302). The PM10 levels were also negatively associated with the O3 levels and temperature but positively associated with the PM2.5 levels. Given the negative relationship between airborne endotoxins and O3 determined here, further studies with larger sample sizes are needed to identify the responsible mechanisms.

The purposes of this study were to evaluate the bulk sample concentration and airborne concentrations of phthalate in different types of propellent and triggers in consumer spray products and estimate health risk assessment via inhalation. First, the phthalate concentrations were analyzed in the solutions of all products 174 from markets. Then, among 64 products containing phthalates, 10 propellant-type products were selected that contained high phthalate concentrations; airborne concentrations were measured at distances of 1, 3, and 5 m from the spray nozzle in a clean room. Four phthalates were detected in spray products: diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBzP), and bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). Among propellant-type products, repellents contained the highest mean concentrations (3.90 ppm), whereas sterilized products contained the lowest mean concentrations (0.59 ppm). Among trigger-type products, cleaning products contained the highest mean concentrations (4.54 ppm), whereas coating products contained the lowest mean concentrations (0.73 ppm). In both propellant- and trigger-type products, DnBP and DEHP exceeded the standard set by the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety of South Korea. No significant patterns were observed for the airborne DiBP, DnBP, and DEHP concentrations at 1, 3, and 5 m (p > 0.05). Children were one of the population groups most susceptible to health risks. Overall, phthalates were detected in both product solutions and the air in consumer spray products; some even exceeded safe limits. Therefore, consumer spray products should be used in well-ventilated areas to avoid respiratory exposure.

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to measure the levels of dust mites (Dermatophagoides farina group 1 [Der f1] and Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus group 1 [Der p1]) and total volatile organic compounds (TVOCs) in the resident environments with living conditions such as the number of ventilation; the number of window, floor, and temperature; and relative humidity (RH) from vulnerable class in South Korea. Information on residents is designed to be prepared by residents on their general characteristics (daily residence time, heating and cooking type, and cleaning on the day of sampling). Dust mites levels ranged from 24.0 to 1087.5 ng/g with a mean of 215.4 ng/g for Der f1 and from 0.6 to 489.9 ng/g with a mean of 489.9 ng/g for Der p1. Total TVOC levels ranged from 15.3 to 1642.1 μg/m3 with a mean of 219.7 μg/m3. The correlation analysis showed a positive association between Der f1 levels and xylene levels in fall (r = 0.49, r < 0.05) of this study.

This study analyzed the trends in change and influencing factors based on particulate matter data from subway stations in 2019 and 2021 (before and during COVID-19). The measurements were based on subway stations on the Seoul Metro from lines 1 to 9. To confirm the changes in particulate matter concentrations before and after COVID-19, the trends of PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations in subway stations in 2019 and 2021 were analyzed. A correlation analysis was subsequently performed for a comparison of the factors influencing changes in the particulate matter concentrations. Overall, both PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations decreased during the outbreak compared to before the COVID-19 outbreak, with rates of 20.7% and 22.8%, respectively. In conclusion, the PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations in the Seoul Metro subway stations during COVID-19 were reduced. The reduction in PM10 and PM2.5, during the COVID-19 period, was the result of government policies such as telecommuting recommendations, subway congestion forecasting systems, and increased ventilation.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are major air pollutants often designated as specific hazardous or toxic. This study analyzed the trends in concentration changes and influencing factors of VOCs in underground subway stations in the Seoul Metro before (2019) and after (2021) the COVID-19 pandemic. A total of 506 samples were collected from 253 stations on lines 1–8 between May 2019 and September 2021. Total VOC concentrations in Seoul Metro increased after the COVID-19 pandemic 3.8 times over. The deeper the underground station platform, the greater the difference in the VOC concentrations between 2019 and 2021, which was positively related. Average VOC concentration was the highest (52.8 µg/m 3 ) at a depth of 25–30 m and the lowest (23.9 µg/m 3 ) at a depth of < 10 m in 2019. In conclusion, excessive disinfection during the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in increased VOC concentrations in the Seoul Metro, especially in the deeper underground stations. Less frequent quarantine disinfection is recommended to improve air quality.

Sung Ho Hwang, Minjung Kim, Mincheol Kim, Jeung Yeon Park, Hyunbin Jo, Myoung Ho Lee, Kiyoung Lee, Kyungduk Zoh, and Chungsik Yoon. J Environ Health Sci. 2023;49:305-11. https://doi.org/10.5668/JEHS.2023.49.6.305

The association between lung injury and exposure to humidifier disinfectant (HD) containing a mixture of chloromethylisothiazolinone (CMIT) and methylisothiazolinone (MIT) has been controversial in South Korea. This study conducts a literature review in order to evaluate the likelihood of CMIT/MIT reaching the lower part of the respiratory tract and causing lung injury. A literature review focused on the inhalation risk of HD containing a mixture of CMIT and MIT. The major contents included the physicochemical properties of CMIT and MIT contained in HDs and methodological reviews on substance analysis, toxicity tests and clinical cases. HD products marketed in South Korea have been reported to contain approximately 1-2% CMIT and 0.2-0.6% MIT along with magnesium nitrate (20-25%), magnesium chloride (0.2-1.0%), and water (70-75%). The types of CMIT and MIT dispersed into the air and deposited in the respiratory tract are assumed to be either gaseous substances or nanoparticles mixed with magnesium salts. The result of the literature review including clinical cases of lung injury among CMIT/MIT HD product users, demonstrated that these chemicals likely reach the lower respiratory tract and accordingly cause lung injury. A number of humidifier disinfectant-associated lung injury cases with clinical evidence should be prioritized in risk assessment of HD containing CMIT and MIT, even though there might be insufficient evidence in all related areas, including inhalation exposure assessment studies, animal testing, and epidemiological studies.

This study aimed to measure the levels of airborne radon Rn and bioaerosols - culturable airborne bacteria (CAB) and culturable airborne fungi (CAF)-in South Korea's residential environments, considering living conditions such as the number of ventilations, number of windows, floors, temperature, and relative humidity. . The range of Rn levels was 0.43-7.439 pCi/L with a median of 0.70 pCi/L. The CAB levels were 239-488 colony-forming unit (CFU)/m3 with a median of 309 CFU/m3, and CAF levels were 174-366 CFU/m3 with a median of 233 CFU/m3. Thus, this study found that semi-basement residential indoor environments negatively affected Rn and bioaerosol levels, and living in such residences resulted in high health condition scores on the bad side. Given the correlation between airborne Rn and bioaerosol levels, further large-scale studies are needed to identify more reliable and representative of research.

OBJECTIVES This study compared the results of meta-analysis with and without adjustment for the healthy worker effect on the association between working in the semiconductor industry and cancer mortality. METHODS Six studies that reported standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) for cancers were selected for meta-analysis. Using a random-effects model, the SMR results from each study were combined for all cancers and leukemias to estimate the summary SMRs (95% confidence interval, CI). To adjust for the healthy worker effect, the relative standardized mortality ratio (rSMR=SMRx/SMRnot x) were calculated using observed and expected counts for the specific cause of interest (i.e., all cancers and leukemias) and the observed and expected counts for all other causes of mortality. Then, the rSMR results were combined to estimate the summary rSMRs (95% CIs). RESULTS The SMRs for all causes of mortality among semiconductor industry workers ranged from 0.25 to 0.80, which reflects a significant healthy worker effect. A remarkable difference was found between the summary SMRs and the summary rSMRs. The summary SMR for all cancers was 0.70 (95% CI, 0.63 to 0.79) whereas the summary rSMR was 1.38 (95% CI, 1.20 to 1.59). The summary SMR for leukemia was 0.88 (95% CI, 0.72 to 1.07), and the summary rSMR was 1.88 (95% CI, 1.20 to 2.95). CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that adjustment for the healthy worker effect (i.e., rSMR) may be useful in meta-analyses of cohort studies reporting SMRs.

The purpose of this study was to determine the most efficient airborne asbestos filter for use in an HEPA negative air machines through filter performance testing. The filter classes applied conformed with ISO and European standard (EN 1822) regarding fractional efficiency by dust loading amount for filters, fractional efficiency for negative air machines, and consumption of electrical power at filter size 0.3 μm. Class H13 had the highest fractional efficiency among the three experimental filter classes by particle size, at face velocity of (1, 2, and 3) m/s. Melt-blown (MB) filters exhibited higher fractional performance than did glass-fiber filters at all particle sizes tested (0.3, 0.5, and 1.0 µm). The power consumption of glass-fiber filters was higher (at 10 m3/min) than that of melt-blown filters. Therefore, melt blown filters would be more cost-effective than glass fiber filters for use in HEPA negative air machines, for protection against airborne asbestos.Implications: Air cleaner and related systems were developed to control a variety of airborne pollutants in general indoor environments, but there was no certified system for focusing on asbestos fractional efficiency using filter tests. Class H13 had the highest fractional efficiency among the three experimental filter classes by particle size, at face velocity of (1, 2, and 3) m/s. Melt-blown filters exhibited higher fractional performance than did glass-fiber filters at all particle sizes tested (0.3, 0.5, and 1.0 µm). The power consumption of glass-fiber filters was higher (at 10 m3/min) than that of melt-blown filters.

We measured the concentrations of indoor pollutants (fine particulate matter (PM10)), culturable airborne bacteria (CAB), total volatile organic compounds (TVOCs), formaldehyde (HCHO), CO2, NO2, and O3 in subway stations and public parking lots at a national scale in South Korea in order to determine their possible relationships with other underground environmental factors and facility characteristics. Indoor pollutants were sampled at 59 underground facilities with a total of 187 samples in subway stations and parking lots. Kruskal–Wallis and Mann–Whitney analyses were used to examine the relationships between atmospheric pollutants at underground facilities and indoor/outdoor differences in PM10 and O3 concentrations. Underground PM10 concentrations were higher than outdoor concentrations at all underground facilities (p < 0.001), while underground O3 concentrations were lower than outdoor O3 concentrations at all underground facilities (p < 0.001).