This systematic review and meta analyses synthesizes evidence from over 900 scientific studies to examine the current state, opportunities, and constraints of agroforestry as a multifunctional land-use strategy in India. Drawing on peer-reviewed literature, the review evaluates ecosystem services frameworks encompassing seven distinct subsets: soil enrichment, water resources, biodiversity conservation, microclimate regulation, climate change mitigation, food and nutritional security, and livelihood enhancement. The study highlights agroforestry’s significant contributions to environmental sustainability and rural development. Evidence shows that agroforestry can improve soil organic carbon by up to 39

IntroductionLivelihood diversification through appropriate cropping and farming systems plays a crucial role in enhancing income security among rural households in the Jammu region. This study aims to assess the contribution of different cropping and farming systems to livelihood diversification of rural farmers.MethodsA multistage sampling technique was employed to select the sample, and a total of 480 households were randomly chosen for the study. A quantitative approach using a structured questionnaire was adopted for data collection. Analytical tools such as the Cobb–Douglas production function and tabular analysis were used to evaluate efficiency parameters and system performance.ResultsThe study identified 11 predominant farming systems in Jammu, mainly dominated by cereal-based and livestock-based activities. Results from the production function indicated that area under cereals and livestock enterprises had a significant positive influence on farm output. Among the systems analyzed, the Fruits + Livestock + Maize + Vegetables system was found to be the most remunerative in terms of total farm income.DiscussionThe findings highlight that limited access to productive assets compels farmers to rely heavily on non-farm activities for income. Enhancing awareness of improved technologies and improving farmers’ access to credit can significantly boost farm productivity and income stability. Strengthening diversified farming systems is essential for sustainable livelihood improvement in the region.

Afield investigation was conducted to evaluate the seasonal incidence of major sucking pests of Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek (mungbean)and their correlation with meteorological parameters under eastern Uttar Pradesh conditions. During the experimental period, incidence of sucking pests of Mungbean was recorded. Studies revealed that incidence of whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) was from 31st Standard Meteorological Week (SW). The highest incidence of whitefly was recorded at 37th SW (14.6 whitefly/cage). The incidence of Jassid (Empoasca kerri,) was recorded for the first time on 31st SW and peak incidence was recorded at 36th SW (6.30jassids/cage). Thrips (Caliothripsindicus) was first time observed during 34th SW. The peak incidence of jassid was recorded at 35th SW with 3.6 per 10 flowers. White fly population had non-significant negative correlation with maximum and minimum temperature and non-significant and positive correlation with sunshine, relative humidity and rainfall. The correlation between population of jassid and weather parameters revealed that among all the weather parameters only sunshine (r = 0.692*) showed significant positive correlation. Thrips showed a non-significant negative correlation with minimum temperature and relative humidity. There was a positive and non-significant correlation between thrips population and maximum temperature, rainfall and sunshine hours. The findings bring out the influence of specific weather variables on the dynamics of some key sucking pests in mungbean. They bring out the importance of integrating climatic data into pest monitoring and forecasting systems for sustainable crop protection.

Weed infestation is a major constraint to maize productivity under rainfed kharif conditions, where diverse and aggressive weed species exert severe competition and cause substantial yield losses; therefore, a field experiment was conducted during the 2023 and 2024 seasons to evaluate the efficacy of selected pre-emergence (PE) and post-emergence (PoE) herbicides applied in sequential combinations for effective weed management and enhanced maize productivity. The treatments included atrazine (PE) followed by (fb) halosulfuron methyl (PoE), atrazine (PE) fb tembotrione (PoE), pyroxasulfone (PE) fb halosulfuron methyl (PoE), pyroxasulfone (PE) fb tembotrione (PoE), along with weedy and weed-free checks. Across both years, sequential herbicide applications significantly reduced weed density, weed dry matter, and yield losses compared to the weedy check. Among the herbicide treatments, pyroxasulfone fb tembotrione consistently achieved the highest grain yield (7.25-7.32 t ha-1), lowest weed density (25.3-30.0 no. m-2), and minimum weed biomass (7.30-7.93 g m-2), along with maximum weed control efficiency (73.9-75.6%) and weed control index (73.6-74.8%), indicating effective season-long weed suppression. Atrazine fb tembotrione ranked second, producing 7.15-7.21 t ha-1 grain yield with 69.6-72.5% weed control efficiency. In contrast, halosulfuron methyl-based treatments (pyroxasulfone fb halosulfuron methyl and atrazine fb halosulfuron methyl) exhibited moderate efficacy owing to their selective control of sedges. The weedy check recorded the lowest grain yield (3.97-4.07 t ha-1), reflecting yield losses exceeding 45%. Overall, pyroxasulfone (PE) fb tembotrione (PoE) proved highly effective, producing yields comparable to the weed-free check and demonstrating strong potential for sustainable maize production.

Agroforestry plays a significant role in the global economy by providing both tangible (goods) and intangible (ecological services) benefits. The present study was conducted during the monsoon and winter seasons of 2016–17 and 2017–18 at Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India, to evaluate the economic performance and profitability of sole cropping of pigeon pea, cowpea–mustard, green gram–mustard and a Gamhar (Gmelina arborea Roxb.)-based agrisilvicultural systems. The study aimed to support smallholders in making informed decisions regarding agroforestry adoption. Tangible economic indicators, including cost of cultivation, gross return, net return, land equivalent ratio (LER), benefit-cost ratio (BCR), net present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and payback period (PBP), along with intangible indicators such as carbon pricing (carbon credits), were used to assess system efficiency. Results from 2 years of field experimentation revealed that the cost of cultivation was higher under the agrisilvicultural systems than under sole cropping. Gross and net returns were higher in 2017–18 than in 2016–17 due to higher establishment costs in the 1st year and increased crop yields in the 2nd year. LER was higher under the agrisilvicultural systems, indicating more efficient land use. Maximum BCR and NPV [3.67 and ₹94,086 (US$ 982.65)], respectively) were recorded in sole arhar, followed by gamhar + arhar [2.76 and ₹84,153 (US$ 878.91)]. Sensitivity analysis indicated minimal changes at 8%, 10%, and 12% discount rates. The highest IRR and lowest PBP were observed in gamhar + arhar (484% and 0.19 years), whereas the lowest IRR and highest PBP were recorded in sole gamhar (−37% and 6.69 years). Oxygen production, oxygen value, carbon credit, and carbon price were highest in the sole greengram-mustard system, showing increases of 7710%, 7595%, 816%, and 817% over sole gamhar in 2016-17; 2103%, 2116%, 733%, and 733% in 2017–18; and 3179%, 3171%, 767%, and 768% in pooled analysis, respectively. Overall, the agrisilvicultural systems was found to be a promising practice in terms of economic viability, livelihood enhancement, and environmental sustainability.

Weed menace in vegetable peas (Pisum sativum var. hortense Neilr.) production is one of the predominant yield limiting factor. We assessed the efficiency and sustainability of diverse weed management approaches in vegetable peas (Pisum sativum var. hortense Neilr.) cultivation, with a focus on weed dynamics, yield enhancement, soil health and herbicide residues. The present investigation compares a combination of mechanical weeding and herbicides, including pendimethalin, metribuzin, clodinafop, and quizalofop, as well as integrated treatments like pendimethalin followed by (fb) mulching fb metribuzin + clodinafop. These integrated approaches achieved a substantial reduction in weed population and weed dry matter accumulation 73.9

Maize (Zea mays L.) is a globally important cereal cultivated across diverse agro-ecological regions due to its remarkable phenotypic plasticity and the highest genetic yield potential. Being a wet season crop in South Asia, weeds always remain a big challenge in harnessing its full potential. A two-year study was conducted by keeping three crop establishment methods viz., raised bed + residue (RB + R), zero tillage + residue (ZT + R) and conventional tillage + residue (CT + R) in main plots and five herbicidal treatments; pyroxasulfone as pre-emergence (PRE), pyroxasulfone (PRE) fb tembotrione as post-emergence (PST), atrazine (PRE) fb tembotrione (PST), unweeded check (UWC) and weed free check (WFC) in sub-plots and were executed in a split-plot design with three replications. Results indicated that comparatively lesser weed population and weed dry matter accumulation of all the weed flora present in the field were noted on RB + R compared to ZT + R and CT + R systems. Similarly, higher growth and yield of maize crop was obtained under RB + R compared to ZT + R and CT + R. Among different weed control treatments, pyroxasulfone fb tembotrione resulted in a substantial decline in the populations of grassy, broad-leaved weeds, and sedges by 66.2%, 58.2% and 41.2%, respectively (2-year mean) compared to the UWC. Significantly higher weed control efficiency (80.1%), weed control index (77.2%) and lowest weed index (8.56%) was found with pyroxasulfone fb tembotrione compared to other herbicide treatments. Pyroxasulfone fb tembotrione recorded grain yield enhancement of 44.8% over UWC. Therefore, it can be concluded that application of pyroxasulfone fb tembotrione in maize crop with raised bed coupled with residues, enhances maize productivity owing to significant decline in weed growth.

Nitrogen (N) is a critical nutrient for forage crop production, influencing yield, quality, and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE). Traditional blanket fertilizer recommendations often fail to account for spatial and temporal variability in crop N requirements, leading to sub-optimal yields and environmental risks. We conducted an experiment over three years (2018–2021) at ICAR–IGFRI, Jhansi, India, to evaluate SPAD- and Leaf Color Chart (LCC)-based real-time N management strategies in two oat varieties (JHO-822 and JHO-2012-2). The objective was to determine the relationship between SPAD and LCC scores with leaf N concentration and dry matter (DM) yield, and to identify threshold values for optimized N application. Oat variety JHO-2012-2 was consistently superior over JHO-822 in terms of DM yield (9.3

This study evaluated a horticulture-based integrated farming system for improving productivity, profitability, soil health, and biological activity compared with conventional rice-wheat and sugarcane monocropping systems in the Upper Gangetic Plains. A five-year field experiment (2020-21 to 2024-25) was conducted at ICAR–IIFSR, Modipuram, Meerut, India, in a 1.50 ha horticulture-based integrated farming system (horticulture, crop, aquaculture, poultry, boundary plantation, and vermicompost). System productivity, economic indicators, soil physical and chemical properties, microbial populations (bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi), enzymatic activities (dehydrogenase, phosphatase, β-glucosidase, fluorescein diacetate hydrolysis), and microbial biomass carbon were assessed and compared with conventional rice–wheat and sugarcane monocropping systems. HIFS achieved system productivity of 43.06 t/ha, 3.23- and 3.20-fold higher than rice–wheat (13.33 t/ha) and sugarcane (13.44 t/ha), respectively. Gross returns (USD 9300.53/year), net returns (USD 5592.53/year), and benefit-cost ratio (1.51) were substantially greater than monocropping systems. Soil bulk density decreased, water-holding capacity improved, and soil organic carbon and nutrient availability increased markedly. Microbial populations, microbial biomass carbon, and enzymatic activities significantly increased, with strong positive associations among soil indicators (p ≤ 0.05–0.01). Horticulture-based integrated farming with resource recycling significantly improves productivity, profitability, and soil biological functioning and offers a sustainable alternative to monocropping systems in the Upper Gangetic Plains.

Potassium (K) availability and its dynamics are of prime importance for sustaining soil health and crop productivity in intensively cultivated Upper Indo-Gangetic Plain. This study assessed the long-term (20 years) impact of organic, integrated and inorganic nutrient management practices on soil K pools, and quantityintensity (Q/I) relationships, which reflect the soil K supply and capacity. Surface soil samples (0-15 cm) were collected from an on-going long-term field experiment laid out in randomized block design with three replications. Treatments comprised of 100 % organic (T1), integrated nutrient management (INM; T2), and 100 % inorganic fertilization (T3). Soil K pools (water soluble, exchangeable, non-exchangeable, and total K), and key Q/I indices i.e. potential buffering capacity (PBC), K saturation, free energy of exchange, and K recharge index were measured in the collected samples. Long-term nutrient management practices significantly influenced the soil K status and Q/I indices. The PBC values ranged from 91 to 115 (cmol kg-1) (mol L-1)1 /2, with higher contribution of non-exchangeable K pool to buffering capacity than the exchangeable pool. Across the nutrient treatments, water-soluble K ranged from 31.69 to 38.63 mg kg-1 , available K from 125.2 to 138.2 mg kg-1 , slowly available K from 1291.5 to 1590.4 mg kg-1 , non-exchangeable K from 379.4 to 500.7 mg kg-1 , and total K from 22,000 to 23,777 mg kg-1 . Non-exchangeable K, cation exchange capacity, and minimum exchangeable K were significantly and positively correlated with PBC. Organic and INM systems sustained balanced Q/I, enhanced KBC which reduced the risk of K depletion as compared to 100 % inorganic treatment. The study demonstrates that long-term organic amendments in INM systems enhance sustainable K availability and soil resilience. These findings highlight the significance of organic based nutrient management for improving soil health and ensuring long-term sustainability of rice-based cropping systems.

The sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.)-wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cropping system has caused significant challenges, including groundwater depletion and soil degradation, necessitating the adoption of Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) for diversification and sustainability. The study was carried out during 2021–2024 at ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research, Modipuram, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh to evaluate an IFS model designed for small and marginal farmers. Spanning 1.38 ha, the model integrates crops, dairy, horticulture, aquaculture, mushroom cultivation, and boundary plantations, emphasizing resource recycling and economic viability. The model demonstrated a high sugarcane equivalent yield (264.1 t/year), with contributions from crops (43%), dairy (29%), horticulture (15%), and fisheries (7%), achieving net annual returns of ₹5,50,090 and a benefit-cost ratio of 3.42. The model also generated 34% higher man-days (774) of annual employment, reducing seasonal unemployment. Components like fisheries, mushroom cultivation, and boundary plantations contributed significantly to income and ecological sustainability. The IFS approach enhanced food and nutritional security by fulfilling household needs and producing marketable surpluses of cereals, fruits, milk, fish, and mushrooms with a marketable surpluses of cereals (92.8%), fruits (94.6%), and milk (93.7%). This comprehensive system offers a sustainable solution to monocropping issues, boosting income and resilience for farm households.

A two-season field experiment (2022-23 and 2023-24) was conducted at the International Rice Research Institute – South Asia regional Centre, Varanasi, India to evaluate the performance of rabi maize in a five-year long term conservation agriculture-based rice-maize system under surface and subsurface drip fertigation. The experiment was followed a randomized complete block design with nine treatment combinations and three replications. The treatment, zero till maize – direct seeded rice system under subsurface drip fertigation and 100 % recommended nitrogen (ZTM-DSR-SSD-100N) exhibited the highest plant height (213.7 cm), dry matter accumulation (316.0 g plant-1) and leaf area index (LAI) (6.74 at 90 DAS), outperforming other treatments by 13.9 %, 35 % and 21 %, respectively, over the lowest-performing CTM-PTR-100N. Yield attributes followed a similar trend, with ZTM-DSR-SSD-100N recording the highest cobs per hectare (72.18), cob length (19.77 cm) and grains per cob (559.94), with 27.6 % higher grain yield (7.43 t ha-1) over least-performing treatment, ZTM-PTR-75N. Enhanced resource efficiency under SSD ensured precise water and nutrient delivery, promoting superior canopy and cob development. Conversely, conventional puddled systems exhibited reduced yields due to waterlogging and inefficient nutrient use. This study highlights the superiority of SSD over traditional methods, showcasing its potential to improve maize productivity and resource-use efficiency under CA-based systems. These findings emphasize the importance of advanced irrigation and nitrogen management strategies for sustainable intensification in the eastern Indo-Gangetic plains.

Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.) plays a crucial role in Indian agriculture, industry, and trade, yet the country's dependence on edible oil imports necessitates enhanced domestic production. Beyond economic significance, mustard cultivation contributes to environmental sustainability by improving soil structure, preventing erosion, and enhancing nutrient uptake through its deep root system. The field experiment was conducted during winter (rabi) seasons of 2022–23 and 2023–24 at ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi to assess the impact of nitrogen management techniques on mustard growth and yield. The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The study included eight treatments i.e. T1, Control; T2, 100% N (Farmer’s practice); T3, 40% N (basal) + 2 sprays of nano urea at 45 days after sowing (DAS) and 60 DAS through knapsack sprayer (2SNU-KS); T4, 50% N (basal) + 2 sprays of nano urea at 45 DAS and 60 DAS through knapsack sprayer; T5, 60% N (basal) + 2 sprays of nano urea at 45 DAS and 60 DAS through knapsack sprayer; T6, 40% N (basal) + 2 sprays of nano urea at 45 DAS and 60 DAS through drone (2SNU-D); T7, 50% N (basal) + 2 sprays of nano urea at 45 DAS and 60 DAS through drone and T8, 60% N (basal) + 2 sprays of nano urea at 45 DAS and 60 DAS through drone. Among the treatments, T8 exhibited superior performance, enhancing the growth parameters, including plant height, leaf area index, dry matter accumulation compared to knapsack sprayer, conventional methods, and control. This treatment also recorded the highest yield attributes, including the number of siliquae/plant (541.3), seeds/siliqua (13.9), and seed yield (2742 kg/ha), underscoring the efficiency of drone-mediated nitrogen application. These findings highlight the potential of optimized nitrogen management and drone technology in enhancing oilseed production while promoting environmentally sustainable agriculture.

AbstractZero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) has been popularized as an alternative agriculture in recent years in the country. Based on agroecological principles, ZBNF proved to be cost and resource effective. In the present study, the sustainability of ZBNF practices was assessed and sustainability variable was divided into three dimensions, namely, economic, socio territorial and agro-ecological dimensions. Furthermore, four unique criteria were considered under each dimension. In Economic dimension in case of Andhra Pradesh, the average score of the index of economic dimension was 199.75 out of 300 and fall into medium category. In the Maharashtra state, the average score of the index of economic dimension was 240.33 out of 300 and fall into high category. In case of Socio-territorial dimension in Andhra Pradesh, the average score of the index of the socio-territorial dimension was 242.42 out of 300 and fall under high category. In Maharashtra state, the average score of the index of the socio-territorial dimension was 229.58 out of 300 fall under high category. In case of Agro-ecological dimension in Andhra Pradesh, the average score of the index of agro-ecological dimension was 244.75 out of 300 fall under high category. In Maharashtra state, the average score of the index of the socio-territorial dimension was 248.50 out of 300 fall under high category. The average sustainability measurement index of ZBNF practices for Andhra Pradesh (228.97) followed by Maharashtra (239.47) falls under high level sustainability category.

Smallholding farmers’ responses to integrated farming systems interventions were diverse due to their heterogeneous nature. To achieve the desired impact on productivity, profitability, and sustainability of tribal farming systems, there is an urgent need to understand the heterogeneity and classify them into homogenous groups. In the present study, the diversity of tribal farms was assessed using crop, livestock, and income-related characteristics. Using principal component analysis and cluster analysis for 100 farm households, 4 farm types were identified i.e. crop (rice-wheat) intensive farming system (26%), crop + dairy + off farm-based farming system (7%), resource- efficient, crop cum dairy based farming system (30%), off-farm dependent resource-poor farming system (35%). The findings of the study provide insights for planning appropriate integrated farming systems for nutrition security and sustainability.

The study assesses the hydrological responses of a major sub-basin in the Upper Ganga Basin, Uttar Pradesh, India, focusing on the effects of land use changes and climate change (CC) impacts. SWAT and General Circulation Models were used to assess the water yields under current (2020) and future scenarios (2030 2050), particularly considering the impacts of organic farming (OF) and agroforestry (AgF) practices. Despite theoretical expectations, the results indicate only minor changes in water yield between different policy scenarios (Business-as-Usual, Optimistic, and Pessimistic), particularly over shorter timeframes. This limited impact is primarily due to the small scale of land transitioning to OF and AgF, the spatial concentration of these practices, and the dominant influence of climate variables on hydrological outcomes. The presented work then extends to estimating the district-wise hydrological response and its valuation for Meerut, Bulandshahr, Aligarh, and Mirzapur following the considered policies. The economic valuation of water yield across the target districts underscores the need for district-specific interventions to optimize water resource management. The findings suggest that scaling up sustainable practices, integrating advanced climate projections, and continuous monitoring are essential for developing resilient water resource management strategies. The study provides a foundation for future research to explore more extensive and long-term impacts of land use and CC on hydrological systems, with a focus on integrating socio-economic factors to achieve future water sustainability.

The ever increasing global population has intensified the pressure on agriculture, driving a shift toward smallholder farming systems. Historically, agricultural technologies have primarily catered to large, mechanized farms, exacerbating the disparity between large and small landholders. While strides have been made in achieving food security, livelihood security for farmers remains elusive, especially for smallholders and marginal farmers, who constitute over 80% of the global farming population. In India, these farmers account for nearly one-fourth of the world's small and marginal farms, cultivating less than 2 ha of land. Raising the income of these smallholders poses a significant challenge to researchers, policymakers, and governments. Given the constancy of land resources, horizontal intensification is not possible. The solution lies in vertical intensification through diversification, exemplified by the Integrated Farming System (IFS). IFS integrates various farming enterprises, allowing the by-products of one enterprise to serve as inputs for another, enabling resource recycling, efficient use of labour and space, and reduced market dependency. However, implementing on-station IFS models directly at farmers' fields is impractical due to high initial costs. Interventions targeting critical inputs within existing farming systems, as demonstrated by the All India Coordinated Research Project on Integrated Farming Systems–On-Farm Research (AICRP-Integrated-IFS-OFR), offer a promising alternative. By investing just ₹7,889 this approach achieved an 86% increase in net income within two years of implementation (2022–24), showcasing its potential to improve the livelihoods of small and marginal farmers effectively.

Transitioning to maize–wheat system (MWS) in conjunction with conservation agriculture has emerged as viable option to tackle the multiple challenges of yield stagnation, environmental threats, and resource depletion under conventional puddled-transplanted rice–wheat rotation in Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP). However, efficient weed management and crop establishment strategies are critical to sustaining crop and resource productivity of MWS. To develop weed management options under diverse tillage systems, three crop establishment methods viz. elevated-bed + residue (EBRC), double zero-tillage + residue (DZRC), and conventional intensive tillage + residue (ITRI) in main plots and five weed management approaches, namely, pyroxasulfone (pyro; Pre-Emergence), Pyro (PE) fb metsulfuron + carfentrazone (MetCarf; Post-Emergence), sulfosulfuron + metsulfuron (SulfoMet; Post-Emergence), unweeded check (UWC), and weed-free check (WFC), were compared in a split-plot design. Reduced weed population and dry matter accumulation were noted with EBRC, relative to DZRC and ITRI. The growth and productivity of wheat remained higher in EBRC compared to DZRC, but it was at par to ITRI. Among diverse weed management options, dual-stage spray of Pyro–MetCarf substantially reduced the densities of sedges (36.7%), and narrow-leaved (64.1%) and broad-leaved (58.9%) weeds, compared to the UWC. Significantly higher weed control efficiency (80.3%), weed control index (79.4%), and lowest weed index were observed under Pyro–MetCarf combination compared to other herbicidal treatments. The same treatment also enhanced the wheat growth and yield (24.6%) over UWC and other herbicide applications. Conclusively, dual-stage herbicidal application of Pyro–MetCarf coupled with EBRC enhances wheat productivity by reducing the infestation of weeds substantially in IGP. The findings suggest that integrating dual-stage herbicidal application with EBRC offers a scalable and resource-efficient strategy for policymakers and practitioners for the wheat belt of IGP.

The study was carried out during 2021–2024 at ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research, Modipuram, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh to evaluate the impact of Integrated Organic Farming System (IOFS) and Integrated Farming System (IFS) on soil biological properties namely microbial population, enzyme activities, and glomalin levels across cereal, vegetable, fruit and fodder crop systems. IOFS consistently demonstrated superior performance with respect to soil health indicators as compared to IFS. Higher microbial populations (bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes) were observed under IOFS, particularly in vegetable crops. Soil under cereal crops (food system) showed around 41% increase in bacterial population in IOFS model compared to IFS model. Similarly soils under vegetable system showed 32% increase in fungal population in IOFS model. Enzyme activities, including dehydrogenase, β-glucosidase, urease, and alkaline phosphatase, were significantly higher in IOFS, with notable improvements in fruit and vegetable crops. Fodder system showed greater improvement in dehydrogenase (36.8%) and β-glucosidase (34.7%) under IOFS as compared to IFS. IOFS also showed increased levels of Easily Extractable Glomalin (EEG) and Total Glomalin (TG). Vegetable system showed 32% and 14% improvement in EEG and TG respectively, indicating enhanced arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi activity and potential for carbon and nitrogen sequestration. These findings highlight the benefits of organic nutrient and pest management practices in promoting soil fertility and sustainability.

Food systems are imperative in ensuring food and nutrition security, livelihoods, and socio-economic conditions. Climate change worsens these challenges, threatening agricultural production vis-a-vis food security through temperature increases and extreme weather conditions. In India, rainfed agriculture makes the country highly susceptible to climate change and even small rainfall decreases can result in crop losses. To overcome these challenges, sustainable intensification and integrated resource management are fundamental to optimizing food production and resource conservation. This demands a multidisciplinary approach, successful adaptation and mitigation measures as well as the emergence of climate-resilient genotypes and better water management systems. Digital agriculture supporting precision technologies can increase productivity and resilience and the incorporation of indigenous knowledge with contemporary ways can lead to international partnerships to improve responses to climate aberrations. Transforming agri-food systems is essential both in India as well as at the global level for sustainable development and ecological harmony.