Summary Sociologists and scholars from related disciplines have contributed to a prolific and interdisciplinary science of relationships. This field began to expand dramatically in the 1980s, with a focus on topics such as marital instability and contextual influences. Sociologists and other relationship scientists have studied the wide array of relationships people have in their social networks, which range from an intimate partner to weak ties. People’s networks consist of concentric layers of members, beginning with the inner circle of five or fewer close friends, adult children, and parents and continuing through larger layers of increasingly distant ties. Relationships serve many functions and contribute to people’s health and well-being, whereas their absence has been identified as a major health risk and as leading to lower well-being. Close relationships are crucial for good health and well-being, but having a diverse network of close and weaker ties also is important. Several relationship processes—including self-disclosure, responsiveness, need fulfillment, and exchange—occur across a range of relationships and contribute to the quality of relationships and, hence, to better well-being. Self-disclosure, which is the revealing of one’s own notable personal information to the recipient, is an essential ingredient of relationship involvement, and it provides benefits for both relationships and the individuals in them. Responsiveness, in the form of responding to a partner’s need for feeling loved and to their minor bids for affection, also significantly affects relationship longevity and quality. Moreover, close relationships can help fill people’s primary needs for intimacy and affection; fulfillment of needs is linked to improved relationship satisfaction and commitment. All of these processes and other resources (money, favors, love, status) are exchanged in relationships, which leads relationships to be perceived to be more or less rewarding and more or less equitable; these perceptions affect the quality of the relationship. Relationships also exist in larger contexts and sociocultural environments and are influenced by cultural factors, historical trends, community social capital, and other social ties. In Western culture, personal independence tends to be a priority: More people live by themselves, birth rates are lower, and the age at first marriage is higher. People often count on a partner to meet their self-actualization needs in addition to their needs for love, which can place a burden on the relationship. On a societal level, communities differ in the extent to which they provide opportunities for people to form social connections, with some providing promising third places, such as parks, cafes, and museums, where they can gather and socialize, while others face constraints such as poverty and risky neighborhoods. Social networks represent an additional contextual factor that influences interpersonal relationships. Extensive research provides support for the social network effect, whereby support and approval from people’s friends and family aid in relationship development and longevity. Future work could benefit from additional attention to situational, developmental, and contextual factors and to interventions for couples. Given its broad theoretical and empirical lens, sociological work will be invaluable in moving the field forward.

We survey the landscape of compassionate love research, beginning with experts' definitions and research on lay conceptions of this construct. Models of compassionate love are presented next, along general theories of human behavior (the behavioral systems approach, evolutionary theory) that have been applied to compassionate love. The chapter then turns to measurement of compassionate love. Next, the focus shifts to a critical challenge for work in this area, namely distinguishing compassionate love from other prosocial emotions and motives (e.g., sympathy, empathy, compassionate goals), prosocial behaviours (e.g., helpfulness, social support, sacrifice), and other kinds of love. Finally, we examine the relation between compassionate love and indices of relationship quality and stability. We conclude that compassionate love holds considerable promise for promoting the well-being of humankind.

Although relationship education (RE) programs aim to improve parents' communication with one another with the hope that it will enhance children's mental health, few studies have investigated if such spillover actually occurs. Therefore, drawing from a sample of 431 families from the Supporting Healthy Marriage Project, the present study examined the relations between parental participation in a RE program and children's subsequent distress, as well as mechanisms that may explain these effects. Using a multi-informant (focal child and parents) and multi-method (self-report and observational assessments) longitudinal design, the current study examined whether randomization into RE programming predicted children's exposure and emotional reactivity to interparental conflict and if decreases in parents' negative communication mediated these effects. Results based on mothers' reports indicated that when parents received RE, children's exposure to conflict decreased. However, these findings were not corroborated by fathers or children. There were also no differences in children's emotional reactivity across conditions, and observable communication did not mediate the relation between randomization into RE and children's outcomes. Together, there was minimal evidence for the efficacy of RE on children's functioning. Results underscore the importance of evaluating multiple family members' perspectives and highlight the need for future work to consider these pathways in samples experiencing greater distress.

An experimental vignette study was conducted to examine the pervasiveness of sexual stereotypes that women (although not men) who engage in casual sex are perceived to have lower self-esteem-and are considered to be less desirable for a relationship-than those who do not engage in casual sex. In a 2 x 2 experimental design, we embedded information about the recent relationship history (two casual sexual relationships vs. two committed sexual relationships) in a hypothetical online dating profile, and also manipulated the profile author's gender. The participants (N = 318, obtained from two college settings and through Prolific) forecasted that an online profile statement that referred to casual sexual partners would lead to less overall attraction (by other users) than a statement that referred to committed relationships. However, this difference was found regardless of the author's gender (i.e., no evidence was found for a double standard). Furthermore, participants did not stereotype the hypothetical woman (or man) as having lower self-esteem if they had casual sex partners. The author's sexual history also did not affect the participants' ratings of their desirability as a partner, with the exception that the author who had prior casual sexual partners was assumed to be more attractive for a short-term relationship than the author with prior committed sexual partners, and regardless of the author's gender. The findings are discussed in the contexts of first impressions made in real-world settings, waning double standards in a society of increased egalitarianism, and changing cultural, sexual scripts.

People's well-being can be enhanced from interactions with strangers and weak ties, but people often do not seek such interactions because of perceived barriers. With data combined from several laboratory studies that involved pairs of strangers who engaged in a getting-acquainted task, participants' pre-interaction forecasts of the enjoyment and liking (i.e., rewards) that they would experience in the interaction and their self-report of presentation concerns (a cost) were compared to their post-interaction reports of actual enjoyment, liking, and self-presentation concerns experienced in the interaction. Findings indicated that the dyad members expressed moderate self-presentation concerns (i.e., worry about the impression they would make) prior to the interaction. They also expected that they would only moderately enjoy the interaction and moderately like the other. These estimates, however, were miscalibrated. The participants experienced lower self-presentation concerns in the interaction than they had expected and enjoyed the interaction and liked their conversation partner more than they had expected. Variation was found in the forecasts and in the gap between pre-interaction expectations and actual experiences as a function of shyness (and social anxiety). Implications of the findings are discussed for enhancing people's weak-tie interactions.

In first interactions, people often think about how much they like the other and how much the other likes them in return. Recently, a liking gap has been identified, which is the tendency for people to underestimate how much a new acquaintance likes them. With data from a compiled sample of pairs of strangers interacting for the first time, this investigation contributes to knowledge on how common it is to experience this perceived liking gap (versus no gap or an overestimation of how much one is liked). Also examined is an actual liking gap, the difference between how much people think they are liked by their interaction partner and how much the partner actually reports liking them in return. The liking gaps were found in the compiled sample and were robust across the individual studies and different conditions within the studies.

Loneliness is a pressing global health crisis. A combination of close and not close ties (i.e., weak ties) is optimal to combat loneliness and improve psychological and physical health. The literature has not differentiated among weak ties, however. We identify possible categories of weak ties along a spectrum from passing strangers to the edge of friendship. We propose that one type of weak tie, which we term "fringeships," may provide unique benefits for well-being compared to other weak ties. Fringeships sit on the edge of close ties and are characterized by: a) regular contact in specific settings; b) volitional and mutual recognition of the connection; c) freedom from obligations that characterize close ties or formalities that characterize many types of weak ties; and d) a degree of shared affection and fondness. Fringeships engage in a balance of small talk and personal disclosure. We speculate on the potential benefits of fringeships, the contexts in which they are likely to arise, and individual differences in the propensity to develop them. We discuss potential interventions for the development of fringeships, particularly for those most in need of social contact. We conclude with research questions to launch this Next Big Idea.

Evidence of a stereotype that links casual sex with being stigmatized and having a lower self-esteem has been found in recent studies particularly for women. This study focused on whether there is a kernel of truth to the specific stereotype that casual sex is linked to lower self-esteem in women. More specifically, we addressed the question of whether, in recent decades, college women who had higher sociosexuality scores (i.e., approved of and engaged in casual sex) had a lower self-esteem than women who were more restricted in their sociosexuality. Secondary analysis of data (N = 8112) collected from 1990 to 2019 at a U.S. Midwestern University suggested no evidence that scores on sociosexuality were linked to global self-esteem for either women or men, and regardless of the decade of data collection. However, a fine-grained exploratory analysis that considered different components of sociosexuality (behaviors, attitudes, and desire/fantasy) and different types of self-esteem (global, relationship, and appearance) demonstrated some associations. For example, the behavioral component of sociosexuality was positively associated with appearance self-esteem particularly for men and the attitudinal component of sociosexuality was negatively associated with relationship self-esteem for women. Furthermore, desire/fantasy about an alternative partner was negatively associated with relationship self-esteem for both women and men (with the exception of the most recent cohort). Future research may consider that the effects of casual sex on self-views may depend on the motives for having casual sex.

Objective: The goal was to determine if time spent in specific Healthy Marriage Initiative program components (relationship education courses, supplemental activities, and family support services) was associated with future relationship satisfaction and to examine if effects differed depending on the degree of economic disadvantage. Background: Healthy Marriage Initiatives (HMI) generally have small, short-term positive effects on relationship outcomes. It remains unclear, however, which programming components are responsible for those effects and for whom programming is most effective. Method: Using two waves of data from over 2,000 lower-income couples in the Supporting Healthy Marriages study, we conducted path models and a multigroup model to address our research aims. Results: Time spent in family support services was the only component positively associated with future satisfaction, controlling for the influence of other program components, initial relationship satisfaction, and expectations of the program's effectiveness. Economic disadvantage did not moderate any of these associations. Conclusion: Results suggest that many HMI programs may potentially be beneficial to relationship functioning because of the provision of supplementary support services that partially aim to alleviate external stressors and provide personalized assistance to families. Implications: Practitioners should not only consider how relationship education programming may influence intimate bonds, but also how complementary programs may also factor into program efficacy.

Desire is a ubiquitous human psychological state that can influence many aspects of people's lives. Desires reflect what people crave and long for and can be based on physiological needs (e.g., hunger, thirst, rest, sex) as well as psychosocial needs (e.g., power, social connection). Desire is a profoundly emotional experience that has the power to shape our thoughts and drive our behaviour. In this chapter, we first provide a general overview of the meaning of desire, drawing upon classic perspectives. Most of the chapter, however, is focused on a commonly researched desire, namely, sexual desire. We review conceptualizations and measurement of sexual desire. Then, because sexual desire is experienced subjectively by the individual, and can vary both within and across individuals, we discuss how sexual desire can be impacted by personal characteristics (e.g., age, gender, health) and the social-environmental contexts (e.g., gender norms, cultural sexual permissiveness/restrictedness) in which individuals are embedded. Because individuals often experience sexual desire within a relational context, we then synthesize the growing and emergent study of sexual desire experienced for the romantic partner. More specifically, we describe the association between sexual desire and significant relationship experiences and properties (e.g., love, satisfaction, responsiveness). Additionally, we summarize recent studies that have used novel methodologies to explore desire, including the inevitable desire discrepancies in ongoing relationships (e.g., daily diaries), as well as identify effective strategies for couples to promote sexual desire.

Abstract Many departments in colleges and universities require a capstone course that involves the students conducting a research project. This author has had over 20 years of experience teaching such a capstone course and describes a flexible research method for student research projects – the vignette study (an experiment embedded in a survey). She also has teams of undergraduate students working in her lab for research credit make progress on a vignette design as one of several research activities. The vignette study can be used for students across many majors, including but not limited to sociology, psychology, criminal justice, nursing, social work, and marketing. Detail is provided on how to teach a capstone course using this flexible research method.

Listening and being responsive to another's turns at disclosure are essential processes that occur at all stages of a relationship, including and perhaps particularly at the formation stage. This article discusses research on the role of responsiveness and listening in contributing to positive outcomes from getting-acquainted interactions. Integral to listening and responsiveness in the getting-acquainted process is asking questions, which is also discussed in this article. Because getting-acquainted interactions can occur in different communication modalities and also with artificial intelligence (AI), variation in the degree to which listening and responsiveness occur as a function of the context will be considered. Although listening skills and responsiveness are desired in a romantic partner, these skills are difficult to assess in online profiles and dating apps, which have become common ways for meeting partners.

Singular risk factors elicit negative relational outcomes for couples, yet the accumulation of risk factors can be especially detrimental to relationship functioning. Few studies, however, have explored the long-term effects of cumulative risk exposure on intimate relationships as well as examined whether relationship education (RE) protects couples from adverse effects of cumulative risk exposure. Accordingly, the present study examined the long-term association between cumulative risk and relationship satisfaction, potential interaction effects between cumulative risk and exposure to singular risks, and if RE protected couples from the effects of cumulative risk exposure. Participants included 6298 couples in the Supporting Healthy Marriages Project. Lagged regression analyses of the participants in the control condition who did not receive relationship education (n = 3160) indicated that men and women under greater cumulative risk exposure experienced greater decreases in relationship satisfaction 2.5 years later. The impact of singular risk factors on relationship satisfaction did not consistently differ as a function of cumulative risk exposure. A multi-group analysis indicated that RE did not protect against the adverse effect of cumulative risk on later relationship satisfaction. Results highlight the long-term detrimental consequences of cumulative risk exposure for relationship satisfaction. Future efforts to enhance relationship functioning may benefit from addressing the accumulation of factors that erode relationship functioning.

People report positive moods and enhanced well-being when they socialize with friends and other close ties. However, because most people routinely have more encounters with acquaintances and strangers (social connections known as weak ties) than with close friends or kin (strong ties), we deemed it important to examine whether interaction with weak ties also enhances happiness and well-being. This investigation, which analyzed data from two laboratory procedures, examined whether participants' positive affect (PA) increased and negative affect (NA) decreased, from before to after a getting-acquainted interaction with a stranger. We also considered whether any benefits of the interaction were moderated by the participants' level of shyness. Participants (N = 270; 135 dyads) from a U.S. university completed mood indices before and after a getting-acquainted task. Their PA significantly increased and their NA significantly decreased from before to after the interaction. Shy participants experienced greater NA both before and after the getting-acquainted interaction (relative to less shy participants), but the shyness level of our participants did not moderate the pattern of change in their PA and NA. Shy participants experienced increases in PA and decreases in NA that were similar to those of less shy participants. We discuss implications of the results regarding the important role of weak social connections for increasing one's daily mood, including for those who are shy.

Recent trend analyses have documented changes over the past decades in psychological and relational variables (e.g., social interaction, empathy, loneliness) for emerging adults. With one exception), however, little research has examined how attachment styles may have changed over time. The present study, which involved data collected from 1997 to 2019 within one university setting, examined whether young adults' selection of the attachment style that best described them from Bartholomew and Horowitz's) four-category attachment measure changed over time, controlling for several sociodemographic variables. Results indicated that the probability of selecting an insecure attachment style (and particularly the dismissing attachment style) increased over time, controlling for sociodemographic variables. The results are consistent with those of Konrath et al.

This study examined college students' judgments of the physical attractiveness of an interaction partner after a getting-acquainted interaction, including in comparison with other benchmarks (e.g., an experimenter rating, a self-rating). With data combined from several past laboratory studies, we found that participants (particularly women who were interacting with another woman) overall rated their interaction partner after a brief interaction to be more attractive than three benchmarks: (1) how the partners were judged by more neutral experimenters who had less interaction with them; (2) how the partners rated themselves; and (3) the participants' own self-ratings of physical attractiveness. Evidence was found for a prediction derived from interaction appearance theory - ratings of the quality (enjoyment) of the interaction were positively associated with ratings of the partner's physical attractiveness. We also explored whether participants' ratings of the physical attractiveness of their interaction partner were affected by factors about the participant (own physical attractiveness, relationship status) and about the context of their communication (modality, type of get-acquainted task). Despite prior work suggesting that physical attractiveness ratings of others are malleable depending on a host of other factors, personal and contextual variables considered in this study were generally not associated with how the participants rated the physical attractiveness of their interaction partner.