Purpose This prospective observational study was undertaken to evaluate the correlation of the axillary Ultrasound findings, Tru-Cut/fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) results and final histology reports for axillary lymph nodes involvement in patients diagnosed with breast cancer. Methods and materials In this observational study, 141 consecutive breast cancer patients are included from 01/10/2013 to 30/10/2014. Cortical thickness of <3 millimetres (mm), smooth cortex and fatty hilum morphology of the lymph nodes are classed as normal sonographic criteria at our unit. Tru-Cut biopsy or FNAC were taken to confirm the metastasis when the above criteria were not fulfilled. Normal sonography and negative tissue results of abnormal looking nodes led to sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB). Positive tissue diagnosis led to axillary node clearance (ANC). Results This study revealed 57.14% sensitivity and 93.39% specificity of axillary ultrasound, which are comparable to the published data (35%–82% and 73%–98% respectively). We missed three patients with breast cancer who had heavily involved axillary lymph nodes, on axillary ultrasound. This was proven on axillary surgery. Conclusion The standards of axillary ultrasound services at our unit, in detecting metastatic lymph node involvement in breast cancer patients, are comparable to the published accuracy rate in preoperative diagnosis of axillary lymph node metastasis. This prospective observational study was undertaken to evaluate the correlation of the axillary Ultrasound findings, Tru-Cut/fine-needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) results and final histology reports for axillary lymph nodes involvement in patients diagnosed with breast cancer. In this observational study, 141 consecutive breast cancer patients are included from 01/10/2013 to 30/10/2014. Cortical thickness of <3 millimetres (mm), smooth cortex and fatty hilum morphology of the lymph nodes are classed as normal sonographic criteria at our unit. Tru-Cut biopsy or FNAC were taken to confirm the metastasis when the above criteria were not fulfilled. Normal sonography and negative tissue results of abnormal looking nodes led to sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB). Positive tissue diagnosis led to axillary node clearance (ANC). This study revealed 57.14% sensitivity and 93.39% specificity of axillary ultrasound, which are comparable to the published data (35%–82% and 73%–98% respectively). We missed three patients with breast cancer who had heavily involved axillary lymph nodes, on axillary ultrasound. This was proven on axillary surgery. The standards of axillary ultrasound services at our unit, in detecting metastatic lymph node involvement in breast cancer patients, are comparable to the published accuracy rate in preoperative diagnosis of axillary lymph node metastasis.

ABSTRACT There are few multilaboratory studies of antifungal combination testing to suggest a format for use in clinical laboratories. In the present study, eight laboratories tested quality control (QC) strain Candida parapsilosis ATCC 22019 and clinical isolates Candida albicans 20533.043, C. albicans 20464.007, Candida glabrata 20205.075, and C. parapsilosis 20580.070. The clinical isolates had relatively high azole and echinocandin MICs. A modified CLSI M27-A3 protocol was used, with 96-well custom-made plates containing checkerboard pairwise combinations of amphotericin B (AMB), anidulafungin (AND), caspofungin (CSP), micafungin (MCF), posaconazole (PSC), and voriconazole (VRC). The endpoints were scored visually and on a spectrophotometer or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) reader for 50% growth reduction (50% inhibitory concentration [IC 50 ]). Combination IC 50 s were used to calculate summation fractional inhibitory concentration indices (FICIs) (ΣFIC) based on the Lowe additivity formula. The results revealed that the IC 50 s of all drug combinations were lower or equal to the IC 50 of individual drugs in the combination. A majority of the ΣFIC values were indifferent (ΣFIC = 0.51 to 2.0), but no antagonism was observed (ΣFIC ≥ 4). Synergistic combinations (ΣFIC ≤ 0.5) were found for AMB-PSC against C. glabrata and for AMB-AND and AMB-CSP against C. parapsilosis by both visual and spectrophotometric readings. Additional synergistic interactions were revealed by either of the two endpoints for AMB-AND, AMB-CSP, AMB-MCF, AMB-PSC, AMB-VRC, AND-PSC, CSP-MCF, and CSP-PSC. The percent agreements among participating laboratories ranged from 37.5% (lowest) for AND-CSP and POS-VOR to 87.5% (highest) for AMB-MCF and AND-CSP. Median ΣFIC values showed a wide dispersion, and interlaboratory agreements were less than 85% in most instances. Additional studies are needed to improve the interlaboratory reproducibility of antifungal combination testing.

Aspergillus is damaged by polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) by means of nonoxidative and oxidative mechanisms, which may be affected by antifungal and antibacterial agents that patients with invasive pulmonary aspergillosis often receive. The pharmacodynamic interactions among deoxycholate amphotericin B (AMB), ciprofloxacin (CIP), and human PMNs against Aspergillus fumigatus growth are unknown. We therefore studied the interactions between 0.032 to 2.0 μg/ml of AMB, 0.1 to 50 μg/ml of CIP at a fixed AMB/CIP ratio of 1:3.125, and PMNs from six donors at an effector-to-target (E:T) ratio of 400:1 against a clinical A. fumigatus isolate using an XTT metabolic assay and the Bliss independence pharmacodynamic-interaction model. CIP exhibited no antifungal activity alone or in combination with PMNs. Synergy was found between AMB and PMNs, with interaction indices (II) of 0.06 to 0.21; the highest interaction of 21% ± 3.6% was observed at 0.22 ± 0.09 μg/ml of AMB. The AMB and CIP (AMB+CIP) combination was synergistic (II = 0.39) at low AMB concentrations and antagonistic (II = 1.39) at high AMB concentrations, with a maximal synergistic interaction of 16% ± 3.7% observed at 0.16 ± 0.08 μg/ml of AMB. The triple combination AMB+CIP+PMNs was synergistic, with interaction indices of 0.05 to 0.20, and a maximal synergistic interaction of 24% ± 4% was observed at 0.20 ± 0.07 μg/ml of AMB. The increased percentage of Bliss synergy of the triple combination AMB+CIP+PMNs (24% ± 4%) was the product of those of the constituent double combinations AMB+PMNs (21% ± 3.6%) and AMB+CIP (16% ± 3.7%). Thus, the antifungal activity of AMB, at clinically relevant concentrations, was enhanced in combination with PMNs and CIP against A. fumigatus growth in a concentration-dependent manner.

ABSTRACTAmphotericin B (AMB) is used to treat fungal infections of the central nervous system (CNS). However, AMB shows poor penetration into the CNS and little is known about the factors affecting its permeation through the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Therefore, we studied immunomodulatory and organism-associated molecules affecting the permeability of anin vitroBBB model to AMB. We examined the effects of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), lipopolysaccharide (LPS), lipoteichoic acid (LTA), zymosan (ZYM), dexamethasone (DEX), cyclosporine, and tacrolimus on transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER); endothelial tight junctions; filamentous actin; and permeability to deoxycholate AMB (DAMB), liposomal AMB (LAMB), and fluconazole. Proinflammatory cytokines and organism-associated molecules significantly decreased the mean TEER by 40.7 to 100% (P≤ 0.004). DEX increased the mean TEER by 18.2 to 26.4% (P≤ 0.04). TNF-α and LPS increased the permeability to AMB by 8.2 to 14.5% compared to that for the controls (1.1 to 2.4%) (P≤ 0.04). None of the other molecules affected the model's permeability to AMB. By comparison, the BBB model's permeability to fluconazole was >78% under all conditions studied, without significant differences between the controls and the experimental groups. LPS and TNF-α decreased tight-junction protein zona occludens 1 (ZO-1) between endothelial cells. In conclusion, IL-1β, ZYM, and LTA increased the permeability of the BBB to small ions but not to AMB, whereas TNF-α and LPS, which disrupted the endothelial layer integrity, increased the permeability to AMB.

We studied the antifungal activity of anidulafungin (AFG) in combination with voriconazole (VRC) against experimental invasive pulmonary aspergillosis (IPA) in persistently neutropenic rabbits and further explored the in vitro and in vivo correlations by using Bliss independence drug interaction analysis. Treatment groups consisted of those receiving AFG at 5 (AFG5 group) and 10 (AFG10 group) mg/kg of body weight/day, VRC at 10 mg/kg every 8 h (VRC group), AFG5 plus VRC (AFG5+VRC group), and AFG10 plus VRC (AFG10+VRC group) and untreated controls. Survival throughout the study was 60% for the AFG5+VRC group, 50% for the VRC group, 27% for the AFG10+VRC group, 22% for the AFG5 group, 18% for the AFG10 group, and 0% for control rabbits (P < 0.001). There was a significant reduction of organism-mediated pulmonary injury, measured by infarct scores, lung weights, residual fungal burdens, and galactomannan indexes, in AFG5+VRC-treated rabbits versus those treated with AFG5 and VRC alone (P < 0.05). In comparison, AFG10+VRC significantly lowered only infarct scores and lung weights in comparison to those of AFG10-treated animals (P < 0.05). AFG10+VRC showed no significant difference in other outcome variables. Significant Bliss synergy was found in vivo between AFG5 and VRC, with observed effects being 24 to 30% higher than expected levels if the drugs were acting independently. These synergistic interactions were also found between AFG and VRC in vitro. However, for AFG10+VRC, only independence and antagonism were observed among the outcome variables. We concluded that the combination of AFG with VRC in treatment of experimental IPA in persistently neutropenic rabbits was independent to synergistic at a dosage of 5 mg/kg/day but independent to antagonistic at 10 mg/kg/day, as assessed by Bliss independence analysis, suggesting that higher dosages of an echinocandin may be deleterious to the combination.

OBJECTIVES:Patients suffering from invasive mycoses often receive concomitant antifungal therapy and antibacterial agents. Ciprofloxacin, a carboxyfluoroquinolone, was previously observed to demonstrate the pharmacodynamic interactions with antifungal agents by altering their growth inhibitory activity against Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus. However, little is known about the interaction between other extended-spectrum fluoroquinolones, such as levofloxacin and moxifloxacin, and antifungal agents against C. albicans and A. fumigatus. METHODS:Using a microdilution chequerboard technique, we employed isobolographic analysis adapted to incorporate a non-active agent in order to analyse the potential in vitro interaction between ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin or moxifloxacin and the following representative antifungal agents: amphotericin B, fluconazole or voriconazole and caspofungin. RESULTS:Synergistic interactions [interaction indices (Iis) 0.69-0.83, P < 0.05] were observed between amphotericin B (0.07-0.31 mg/L) and either ciprofloxacin (0.19-7.65 mg/L) or levofloxacin (0.41-32.88 mg/L) against C. albicans and A. fumigatus. Synergy (Iis 0.56-0.87, P < 0.05) also was found between voriconazole (0.09-0.14 mg/L) and ciprofloxacin (0.22-11.41 mg/L) as well as between caspofungin (8.94-22.07 mg/L) and levofloxacin (0.14-5.17 mg/L) against A. fumigatus. Some antagonistic (Iis 1.16-1.29, P < 0.05) interactions were observed between fluoroquinolones and fluconazole against C. albicans. In general, ciprofloxacin enhanced the activity of antifungal agents more than moxifloxacin and levofloxacin against both C. albicans and A. fumigatus. CONCLUSIONS:The knowledge of the pharmacodynamic interactions between fluoroquinolones and antifungal agents may guide selection and potentially improve the outcome of immunosuppressed patients with concurrent bacterial and fungal infections.

ABSTRACT We developed two real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays, targeting the 28S rRNA gene, for the diagnosis of zygomycosis caused by the most common, clinically significant Zygomycetes. The amplicons of the first qPCR assay (qPCR-1) from Rhizopus, Mucor , and Rhizomucor species were distinguished through melt curve analysis. The second qPCR assay (qPCR-2) detected Cunninghamella species using a different primer/probe set. For both assays, the analytic sensitivity for the detection of hyphal elements from germinating sporangiospores in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid and lung tissue homogenates from rabbits was 1 to 10 sporangiospores/ml. Four unique and clinically applicable models of invasive pulmonary zygomycosis served as surrogates of human infections, facilitating the validation of these assays for potential diagnostic utility. For qPCR-1, 5 of 98 infarcted lung specimens were positive by qPCR and negative by quantitative culture (qCx). None were qCx positive only. Among 23 BAL fluid samples, all were positive by qPCR, while 22 were positive by qCx. qPCR-1 detected Rhizopus and Mucor DNA in 20 (39%) of 51 serial plasma samples as early as day 1 postinoculation. Similar properties were observed for qPCR-2, which showed greater sensitivity than qCx for BAL fluid (100% versus 67%; P = 0.04; n = 15). The assay detected Cunninghamella DNA in 18 (58%) of 31 serial plasma samples as early as day 1 postinoculation. These qPCR assays are sensitive and specific for the detection of Rhizopus, Mucor, Rhizomucor , and Cunninghamella species and can be used for the study and detection of infections caused by these life-threatening pathogens.

Background: Diagnosing invasive aspergillosis is difficult but might be improved by detection of circulating galactomannan. Although galactomannan antigenemia has been well studied ill the detection of invasive aspergillosis ill adult patients, little is known about the expression of circulating galactomannan in immunocompromised children with invasive aspergillosis.Methods: We studied the expression of galactomannan antigen by enzyme immunoassay (EIA) ill 990 sserum samples from 56 pediatric oncology patients (ages 3 months to 18 years) of whom 17 had proven or probable invasive aspergillosis defined by the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer-Mycoses Study Group criteria. Any sample with a galactomannan EIA Galactomannan index value of >= 0.5 was considered positive.Results: At least 1 serum sample was positive for 11 of 17 pediatric oncology patients (65.7% sensitivity, 95% confidence interval: 38.3-85.7) with invasive aspergillosis. Galactomannan HA was positive in 99 of 304 samples from patients with proven or probable invasive aspergillosis, and 7 of 686 (1.0%) samples from 39 control subjects resulted in a positive galactomannan EIA result. At least I sample tested positive in 5 of the 39 controls (12.8%. 95% confidence interval: 4.3-27.4). No significant association between accuracy and patient age vas observed. Among the 7 evaluable galactomannan-positive patients with IA, the galactomannan EIA produced a positive result before clinical or radiographic evidence of infection in 6 cases, with a lead-time to diagnosis ranging from 1 day to 34 days (median: 10 clays). In the remaining case, a positive galactomannan vas observed on the same clay as diagnosis by non-EIA methods.Conclusions: The presence of circulating galactomannan is predictive of invasive aspergillosis in most pediatric oncology patients. Galactomannan antigenemia may precede clinical, microbiologic, oradiographic evidence of invasive aspergillosis.

ABSTRACT Candida krusei ATCC 6258 was tested by eight laboratories using 96-well plates containing checkerboard pairwise combinations of amphotericin B (AMB), posaconazole (PSC), caspofungin (CSP), and voriconazole (VRC). The methodology led to reproducible results across the laboratories. All drug combinations yielded MICs lower than the MICs of any two drugs tested singly, and combinations of AMB, PSC, CSP, and VRC were indifferent (no antagonism) by summations of fractional inhibitory concentration.

Dermatomycoses are among the world's most common diseases and their incidence has increased over recent years, particularly in immunosuppressed patients. In previous studies, the saponin CAY-1 from cayenne pepper (Capsicum frutescens), has shown antifungal activities against Candida albicans and Aspergillus spp. We therefore studied the in vitro antifungal activity of CAY-1 against non-germinating conidia and hyphae of clinical isolates of the dermatophytes Trichophyton mentagrophytes, T. rubrum, T. tonsurans and Microsporum canis. We used a microdilution method to assess the growth inhibitory activities of CAY-1 against conidia (CLSI document M38-A) and a colorimetric procedure (XTT method) to investigate the metabolic inhibitory activity of CAY-1 against hyphae. The minimal inhibitory concentrations (complete visual growth inhibition) of CAY-1 against non-germinating conidia ranged from 10-20 g/ml for all dermatophyte isolates included in this investigation. In addition, we found 90% inhibition of hyphal metabolic activity of these same isolates with 10-20 g/ml of CAY-1. Results indicate that CAY-1 merits further investigation as a potential agent for the treatment of dermatomycoses.

ABSTRACT The concentration-dependent effects of echinocandins on the metabolic activity of Aspergillus spp. were comparatively studied by using nongerminated and germinated conidia. The susceptibilities of 11 Aspergillus fumigatus, 8 A. terreus and 8 A. flavus isolates to caspofungin, micafungin, and anidulafungin were studied by a CLSI (formerly NCCLS) M38-A broth microdilution-based method. After 48 h of incubation the minimum effective concentration (MEC) was defined microscopically. Metabolic activity was assessed by the 2,3-bis-(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium-5-carboxanilide assay and modeled by using the sigmoid (Emax) or “bell-shaped” model. The median MEC values of caspofungin (0.5 to 1 μg/ml), micafungin (0.06 to 0.12 μg/ml), and anidulafungin (0.03 μg/ml) against nongerminated conidia increased by 0 to 1, 1 to 2, and 2 to 3 twofold dilutions, respectively (depending on the species), over those against germinated conidia. A similar shift to the right was demonstrated for the corresponding curves of metabolic activity. There was a significant correlation between the degrees of maximal metabolic inhibition caused by different echinocandins at both the species level (greater inhibition for A. flavus) and the strain level (r = 0.84 to 0.93; P < 0.0001). Paradoxical increases in metabolism in the presence of higher concentrations of caspofungin, micafungin, and anidulafungin were detected in 6, 2, and 5 of the A. fumigatus isolates, respectively; 5, 1, and 2 of the A. terreus isolates, respectively; and 1, 0, and 0 of the A. flavus isolates, respectively. Based on the model, 50% of the maximal paradoxical increase was detected with 4.2, 11.1, and 10.8 μg/ml of caspofungin, micafungin, and anidulafungin, respectively. All echinocandins therefore exerted comparable levels of maximal metabolic inhibition against Aspergillus spp. at concentrations that were differentially increased for germinated versus nongerminated conidia. The paradoxical increase in metabolism occurred more frequently and at lower concentrations with caspofungin than with micafungin and anidulafungin.

ABSTRACT Patients suffering from invasive mycoses often receive concomitant antifungal therapy and antibacterial agents. Assessment of pharmacodynamic interactions between antifungal and antibacterial agents is complicated by the absence of a common antifungal end point for both agents. Ciprofloxacin has no intrinsic antifungal activity but may interact with antifungal agents, since it inhibits DNA gyrase (topoisomerase II), which is abundant in fungi. We therefore employed isobolographic analysis adapted to incorporate a nonactive agent in order to analyze the potential in vitro interaction between the fluoroquinolone ciprofloxacin and several representative antifungal agents against Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus strains by using a microdilution checkerboard technique. In agreement with earlier in vitro studies, conventional fractional inhibitory concentration index analysis was unable to detect interactions between ciprofloxacin and antifungal agents. However, isobolographic analysis revealed significant pharmacodynamic interactions between antifungal agents and ciprofloxacin against C. albicans and A. fumigatus strains. Amphotericin B demonstrated concentration-dependent interactions for both species, with synergy (interaction indices, 0.14 to 0.81) observed at ciprofloxacin concentrations of <10.64 μg/ml. Synergy (interaction indices, 0.10 to 0.86) was also found for voriconazole and caspofungin against A. fumigatus . Isobolographic analysis may help to elucidate the pharmacodynamic interactions between antifungal and non-antifungal agents and to develop better management strategies against invasive candidiasis and aspergillosis.

Background: Zygomycosis has emerged as an increasingly important infection with a high mortality especially in immunocompromised patients. No comprehensive analysis of pediatric zygomycosis cases has been published to date.Methods: We used a PUBMED search for English publications of pediatric (0 - 18 years) zygomycosis cases and references from major books as well as single case reports or case series. Individual references were reviewed for additional cases. Data were entered into Filemaker-pro database and analyzed by logistic regression analysis.Results: One hundred fifty-seven cases (64% male) were found with median age 5 years (range, 0.16-13). Underlying conditions included neutropenia (18%), prematurity (17%), diabetes mellitus (15%), ketoacidosis (10%), and no apparent underlying condition (14%). The most common patterns of zygomycosis were cutaneous (27%), gastrointestinal (21%), rhinocerebral (18%), and pulmonary (16%). Among 77 culture-confirmed cases, Rhizopus spp. (44%) and Mucor spp. (15%) were most commonly identified. Of 81 patients who were given antifungal therapy, 73% received an amphotericin B formulation only. The remaining patients received mostly amphotericin B in combination with other antifungal agents. Mortality in patients without antifungal therapy was higher than in those with therapy (88% versus 36%, P < 0.0001). Ninety-two (59%) patients underwent surgery. Cerebral, gastrointestinal, disseminated and cutaneous zygomycosis were associated with mortality rates of 100, 100, 88, and 0%, respectively. Independent risk factors for death were disseminated infection (OR: 7.18; 95% CI: 3.02-36.59) and age < 1 year (OR: 3.85; 95% CI: 1.05-7.43). Antifungal therapy and particularly surgery reduced risk of death by 92% (OR: 0.07; 95% Cl: 0.04-0.25) and 84% (OR: 0.16; 95% CI: 0.09-0.61), respectively.Conclusions: Zygomycosis is a life-threatening infection in children with neutropenia, diabetes mellitus, and prematurity as common predisposing factors, and there is high mortality in untreated disease, disseminated infection, and age < 1 year. Amphotericin B and surgery significantly improve outcome.

ABSTRACT The minimum effective concentration (MEC) used to assess the in vitro antifungal activity of caspofungin against Aspergillus spp. is a qualitative endpoint requiring microscopic examination of hyphae. We therefore developed a tool for the quantitative assessment of caspofungin activity against Aspergillus spp. at clinically applicable concentrations. Susceptibility to caspofungin (0.008 to 8 μg/ml) was studied for 9 A. fumigatus , 8 A. flavus , and 12 A. terreus isolates based on the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute M38-A protocol. After 48 h of incubation, the MEC was defined microscopically, and metabolic activity assessed with a modified XTT assay, using 100 μg of the tetrazolium salt XTT/ml and 6.25 μM menadione. A significant reduction in metabolic activity was demonstrated at the MEC (0.25 to 0.5 μg/ml) for all Aspergillus spp. and was more pronounced for A. flavus (median metabolic activity, 25% of control) compared to A. fumigatus and A. terreus (median metabolism, 42 and 53%, respectively), allowing determination of MEC with the XTT assay (93 to 100% agreement with microscopic MEC). Fungal metabolism tended to reach the lowest levels (median, 17 to 38% of control) one to two dilutions higher than the MEC, at the minimum metabolic activity concentration (MMC). For 5 of 9 A. fumigatus isolates, 6 of 12 A. terreus isolates, and 1 of 8 A. flavus isolates, a paradoxical increase in metabolism was observed at concentrations greater than the MMC. Sigmoid ( E max ) or bell-shaped models described accurately (median R 2 = 0.97) the concentration-dependent metabolic changes in the absence or presence, respectively, of paradoxical response. Assessment of metabolic activity may provide useful quantitative endpoints for in vitro studies of caspofungin against Aspergillus spp.

OBJECTIVES:To develop and evaluate a new method for rapid susceptibility testing of Aspergillus spp. based on early metabolic signalling of high-inoculum biomass.METHODS:Susceptibility to amphotericin B and voriconazole was studied in 39 clinical isolates of Aspergillus spp. (16 Aspergillus fumigatus, 11 Aspergillus flavus, 12 Aspergillus terreus). At 6 or 8 h after inoculation for A. fumigatus and A. flavus, and at 8 or 12 h after inoculation for A. terreus, 100 microg/mL of the tetrazolium salt XTT and 25 microM menadione were added and absorbance measured at 450 nm after 2 h of incubation at 37 degrees C. Inocula used were 10(6) conidia/mL for A. fumigatus and A. terreus and 10(5) conidia/mL for A. flavus, as lower inocula exhibited very low metabolic activity at these time points. Data were analysed with the sigmoid E(max) model and compared with visual (lowest drug concentration showing no growth) and spectrophotometric MIC determination at 48 h (CLSI M38-A method).RESULTS:The E(max) model described well the concentration-effect relationship for early metabolic activity and 48 h fungal biomass (median r(2): 0.97 and 0.93, respectively). Use of the model allowed characterization and quantification of species- and drug-related differences in pharmacological inhibition of early metabolic activity as well as calculation of appropriate cutoff levels for MIC determination with the XTT assay. Using these cutoff levels, for A. fumigatus and A. flavus at both time points (6 and 8 h) and for A. terreus at 12 h, the agreement (+/- one dilution) of the XTT assay with the CLSI method was 91-100% and its reproducibility was 97-100%.CONCLUSIONS:This newly developed high-inoculum-based method provides rapid and reproducible MIC determinations for Aspergillus spp.

BACKGROUNDLittle is known about the pathogenesis of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis and the relationship between the kinetics of diagnostic markers and the outcome of antifungal therapy.METHODSAn in vitro model of the human alveolus, consisting of a bilayer of human alveolar epithelial and endothelial cells, was developed. An Aspergillus fumigatus strain expressing green fluorescent protein was used. Invasion of the cell bilayer was studied using confocal and electron microscopy. The kinetics of culture, polymerase chain reaction, and galactomannan were determined. Galactomannan was used to measure the antifungal effect of macrophages and amphotericin B. A mathematical model was developed, and results were bridged to humans.RESULTSA. fumigatus penetrated the cellular bilayer 14-16 h after inoculation. Galactomannan levels were inextricably tied to fungal invasion and were a robust measure of the antifungal effect of macrophages and amphotericin B. Neither amphotericin nor macrophages alone was able to suppress the growth of A. fumigatus; rather, the combination was required. Monte Carlo simulations showed that human dosages of amphotericin B of at least 0.6 mg/kg were required to achieve adequate drug exposure.CONCLUSIONSThis model provides a strategy by which relationships among pathogenesis, immunological effectors, and antifungal drug therapy for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis may be further understood.

ABSTRACT We investigated the compartmentalized intrapulmonary pharmacokinetics of amphotericin B and its lipid formulations in healthy rabbits. Cohorts of three to seven noninfected, catheterized rabbits received 1 mg of amphotericin B deoxycholate (DAMB) per kg of body weight or 5 mg of either amphotericin B colloidal dispersion (ABCD), amphotericin B lipid complex (ABLC), or liposomal amphotericin B (LAMB) per kg once daily for a total of 8 days. Following sparse serial plasma sampling, rabbits were sacrificed 24 h after the last dose, and epithelial lining fluid (ELF), pulmonary alveolar macrophages (PAM), and lung tissue were obtained. Pharmacokinetic parameters in plasma were derived by model-independent techniques, and concentrations in ELF and PAM were calculated based on the urea dilution method and macrophage cell volume, respectively. Mean amphotericin B concentrations ± standard deviations (SD) in lung tissue and PAM were highest in ABLC-treated animals, exceeding concurrent plasma levels by 70- and 375-fold, respectively (in lung tissue, 16.24 ± 1.62 versus 2.71 ± 1.22, 6.29 ± 1.17, and 6.32 ± 0.57 μg/g for DAMB-, ABCD-, and LAMB-treated animals, respectively [ P = 0.0029]; in PAM, 89.1 ± 37.0 versus 8.92 ± 2.89, 5.43 ± 1.75, and 7.52 ± 2.50 μg/ml for DAMB-, ABCD-, and LAMB-treated animals, respectively [ P = 0.0246]). By comparison, drug concentrations in ELF were much lower than those achieved in lung tissue and PAM. Among the different cohorts, the highest ELF concentrations were found in LAMB-treated animals (2.28 ± 1.43 versus 0.44 ± 0.13, 0.68 ± 0.27, and 0.90 ± 0.28 μg/ml in DAMB-, ABCD-, and ABLC-treated animals, respectively [ P = 0.0070]). In conclusion, amphotericin B and its lipid formulations displayed strikingly different patterns of disposition in lungs 24 h after dosing. Whereas the disposition of ABCD was overall not fundamentally different from that of DAMB, ABLC showed prominent accumulation in lung tissue and PAM, while LAMB achieved the highest concentrations in ELF.

Little is known about the relationships between metabolic activity and fungal biomass or time of incubation for medically important fungal pathogens. Understanding these relationships may be especially relevant for rapidly growing organisms, such as zygomycetes. A range of inocula of five clinical isolates of zygomycetes (one each of Rhizopus oryzae, Rhizopus microsporus, Cunninghamella bertholletiae, Mucor circinelloides and Absidia corymbifera) were incubated for 6, 8, 12, 24 and 48 h, after which hyphal mass was assessed spectrophotometrically and metabolic activity was measured using various concentrations of XTT and menadione. Both linear regression and the Boltzmann sigmoid model were used and compared for description of relationships between metabolic activity, biomass and time of incubation. Modeling was further applied to eleven additional zygomycete isolates. The relationships of biomass or metabolic activity as a function of time of incubation were well described with the Boltzmann sigmoid model. The latter was superior to linear regression in describing the relationship between metabolic activity and fungal biomass. For all isolates of zygomycetes, increases in metabolic activity preceded increases in biomass. Inter-species differences in growth patterns were observed, with Rhizopus microsporus and Mucor spp. reaching the plateau of growth earlier compared to other species. These findings on the temporal relationship and inter-species differences of hyphal growth and metabolic activity for zygomycetes may be useful in the design and interpretation of in vitro studies of these emerging pathogens.