Contemporary work confronts researchers and educators with a range of challenges, including those posed by complex environments in which workers grapple with uncertainty in high-stakes situations. A different challenge lies in the assumptions brought to learning design and facilitation, assumptions which together constitute a ‘paradigm’ concerning how to approach these tasks. Without a paradigm, designers and practitioners may exercise an incoherent practice; but if the paradigm is in some way problematic, then the practice may be compromised. In this paper, we focus on work in complex environments that involve uncertainty in high-stakes situations, problematizing a particular paradigm—the ‘pre-specification’ approach—that is often brought to bear on it. The key to this paradigm is that work can be analysed and represented such that it can be specified in advance as a reference point for educational endeavours. We problematize key epistemological and ontological assumptions of this paradigm. Hermeneutics draws attention to the limits of these assumptions regarding what we can understand and represent about work, while complexity theory allows us to recognize ontological features of work that make pre-specification difficult or untenable. We conclude that in complex work, representation-making needs to be a distributed activity rather than a specialty, and it occurs at multiple points on the learning continuum rather that solely at the beginning.

Acquiring proficiency in advanced life support (ALS) can pose challenges for novice learners. Simulation-based training (SBT) is widely used to address this, offering learners opportunities to practise and receive feedback during debriefing. However, existing performance tools often lack the clarity, behavioural specificity, and educational scaffolding required to support deep reflective learning. This study aimed to develop and evaluate the Performance Reflection Model for Resuscitation (PRM-Resus) and to integrate it with the ALS Team Model and structured video exemplars as a comprehensive learning package to enhance ALS training. The study involved four phases. Phase 1 created the ALS Team Model to clarify individual roles. Phase 2 focused on co-designing PRM-Resus, using team expertise and the Team Model to create behaviourally anchored performance descriptors. In Phase 3, video scenarios were produced to represent ALS team performance at varying proficiency levels. Phase 4 evaluated the PRM-Resus through expert think-aloud studies. Qualitative content analysis was used alongside Cronbach’s alpha to assess internal consistency and its use for SBT. The PRM-Resus comprises four domains—clinical skills, clinical knowledge, team management, and leadership—each defined by behavioural descriptors across three performance levels. The participating experts endorsed the tool’s clarity, structure, and educational value for novice learners. Internal consistency was high (α > 0.95). When used alongside the ALS Team Model and video exemplars, PRM-Resus facilitated deeper performance analysis, which had potential for enhancing post-simulation reflection and supporting faculty development. This study presents a novel, interdisciplinary framework that integrates PRM-Resus, the ALS Team Model, and video exemplars to support reflective learning in ALS simulation. Together, these tools help novice learners build a concrete understanding of effective team performance and enable educators to deliver more structured feedback. Further research should explore its impact on learner development and potential translation into improved clinical outcomes.

Contemporary work confronts researchers and educators with a range of challenges, including those posed by complex environments in which workers grapple with uncertainty in high-stakes situations. A different challenge lies in the assumptions brought to learning design and facilitation, assumptions which together constitute a 'paradigm' concerning how to approach these tasks. Without a paradigm, designers and practitioners may exercise an incoherent practice; but if the paradigm is in some way problematic, then the practice may be compromised. In this article, we focus on work in complex environments, problematizing a particular paradigm-the 'pre-specification' approach-that is often brought to bear on it. The key to this paradigm is that work can be analysed and represented such that it can be specified in advance as a reference point for educational endeavours. We problematize key epistemological and ontological assumptions of this paradigm. Hermeneutics draws attention to the limits of these assumptions regarding what we can understand and represent about work, while complexity theory allows us to recognize ontological features of work that make pre-specification difficult or untenable. We conclude that in complex work, representation-making needs to be a distributed activity rather than a specialty, and it occurs at multiple points on the learning continuum rather that solely at the beginning.

This paper provides a sociocultural understanding of how airline cabin crew negotiate their learning for emergencies and challenges the conventional approach of relying solely on formal training. Drawing on ethnographic methods, our research offers insights into the learning trajectory of the cabin crew of a regional airline operating in the Tasman Sea Region. While learning occurs as new cabin crew members engage with routine work practices and share experiences with their peers, performing in emergencies - a core cabin crew duty - is not situated within their everyday work. Nevertheless, we argue that learning for emergencies shows characteristics of sociocultural learning in sharing stories and negotiating the meaning of their role. By acknowledging and integrating contextualised narratives in their learning for emergencies, cabin crew can develop a deeper understanding of their role in the interplay of knowledge, values, beliefs, and stories. The study's findings prompt a reconsideration of current aviation training programmes, and they highlight the need for a more holistic, contextually rich approach to cabin crew learning for emergencies.

Extended reality has long been utilized in the games industry and is emergent for pilot training in the military and commercial airline sectors. This paper follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) methodology to present a systematic quantitative literature review (SQLR) on the use of extended reality in flight simulators. It also encompasses recent studies of teaching and learning in immersive, virtual environments in non-aviation disciplines. The review identified 39 papers spanning all areas of the virtuality continuum across academic, commercial, and military aviation sectors, as well as engineering and medicine. The SQLR found that extended reality in flight simulators is being introduced in the commercial and military aviation sectors. However, within academia, hardware constraints have hindered the ability to provide positive empirical evidence of simulator effectiveness. While virtual reality may not replace traditional flight simulators in the near future, the technology is available to supplement classroom training activities and some aspects of simulator procedure training with promising cognitive learning outcomes. However, its usefulness as a mechanism of skills transfer to the real world has not been evaluated, highlighting numerous research opportunities.

Abstract: A sense of presence plays a significant role in virtual reality (VR) usability, yet there is limited research of its existence in a virtual reality flight simulator (VRFS). Similarly, there is scarce investigation of situational awareness (SA) in a VRFS. Consequently, this paper discusses an experiment that explored presence and SA in a VRFS. Physiological responses are also captured. The results reveal that participants felt a high degree of presence in a VRFS, and felt immersed and involved. The sense of presence contributed to good SA, and physiological data identified increased stress levels. These results are an important step in the exploration of VR in the field of aviation training. However, more research is required to identify how and where VR could be applied.

Effective teamwork in interprofessional healthcare teams requires expert performance by individuals in clearly defined roles. This focus on role clarity and role performance provides the basis of the ‘pit crew’ approach, now commonly utilized in resuscitation teams with demonstrated benefits in patient care. Maternity teams responding to emergencies may benefit from a similar approach to teamwork; however, little attention has been paid to team member roles within the maternity emergency context. In this qualitative case study of maternity teams responding to two simulated maternity emergencies in the context of a teamwork training course, we aimed to describe team member performance in roles and explore clinician perceptions of role allocation and performance within the team. Video analysis of role performance demonstrated team members performed actively and passively in multiple roles throughout the scenario, with some improvement in role consistency between Case 1 and Case 2. Workload distribution was uneven, with some clinicians performing tasks across several roles concurrently, while others did not appear to take on any role. Thematic analysis of debriefing conversations and post-scenario interviews and focus groups revealed four themes. Three themes related to the process of team member allocation to roles with participants describing the need to firstly gain an understanding of the situation, have knowledge of clinical requirements and priorities and consider their suitability for role in the clinical case. The fourth theme related to participants shift in conceptual understanding of how to work in roles facilitated by the simulations and debriefings. This study provides a preliminary understanding of how team members allocate roles in

This paper provides a perspective on learning in which training and situated learning complement each other in developing cabin crew competence. Traditionally, airlines have approached cabin crew training from a competency-based, behavioural perspective with limited engagement in the actual work context. This ethnographic study builds on contemporary learning theoriesto argue that participation in social practice is essential for developing cabin crew competence. More importantly, it was found that learning arises in the frictions and negotiations between identity, knowledge, and values fostered in training and the workplace experience of the cabin crew. These findings contribute to the situated learning literature by expanding the notion that training may also have characteristics of social practice. Likewise, understanding learning arising from the negotiation of different contexts offers a broader perspective of situated learning. These findings in the learning processes of cabin crew may contribute to the improvement of the airlines' training programmes and potentially to other contexts of high social interaction, such as hospitality and healthcare.

This paper investigates how flight instructors view the utility of competency-based education/training (CBE/T) during the training of new pilots. A total of ten flight instructors were interviewed and analysed through an interpretive paradigm of grounded theory. The findings indicate flight instructors of all experience levels have difficulty engaging with competency texts and have a limited theoretical understanding of CBE/T. The findings suggest possible incorrect practices are being employed by instructors. More importantly, the study highlights a concern that the current industry understanding of CBE/T directly relates to learning and safety, with a potential for negative outcomes. The paper questions if CBE/T is an appropriate model for training new pilots.

Aircraft accidents over the last decade have raised questions about the most effective way to transition pilots onto new aircraft automation systems. This debate can range from the details contained within aircraft flight manuals to computer-based versus simulator-based training. While some questions are still under consideration, most fall short in the understanding of how pilots "actually" learn. The researchers conducted a longitudinal study focusing on pilot learning; through interviews, observations, and field documentation, 10 pilot trainees from two regional airlines were followed for 5 months throughout their initial airline training. Using joint cognitive systems theory, and concepts from curriculum theory to understand the utility of training programs, the study revealed gaps between the airlines' intended learning outcomes and the trainees' actual experiences. The findings demonstrate that automation, as opposed to other aircraft systems, may require different approaches to learning. Recommendations for possible modifications to current pilot training are discussed.

A distinctive feature of contemporary professional, vocational and continuing education is the prevalence of the ‘competency’ approach. So-called competency-based education or training (CBE/T) can be adopted as a basis for programs of learning, frameworks for development within occupations, or for national systems of vocational education. Its application is observed across a wide range of occupations – from gardening to teaching to piloting aircraft – and to diverse levels of expertise, from entry-level to continuing professional development. Although acceptance of the competency-based approach is widespread, there is still debate about its meaning and merits. Just as diverse applications can be cited, there are varying definitions and rationales for the approach. And while CBE/T appeals to common sense, there have been and continue to be challenges and criticisms from different disciplinary perspectives and with respect to its features and impacts. In this paper a special set of problems with CBE/T is examined. A model is presented which differentiates three interrelated components: competence, competency texts and CBE/T. By separating the definition into three components, a little-understood characteristic of the approach is foregrounded – processes of interpretation that translate between these components. The model thus exposes ‘hermeneutic’ dimensions of the competency approach which are argued to be key to understanding a number of problems associated with CBE/T. The paper concludes that the hermeneutic features of the competency approach represent challenges for basic assumptions of the model.

The work of the cabin crew involves a range of activities and social interactions that are not explicitly reflected in the initial training programmes. A small qualitative case study was conducted to understand the effectiveness of current formal training and the influence of experiences at work on cabin crews’ learning. The study involves seven individual interviews with the cabin crew members who were recently hired into a regional airline. While confirming the importance of formal training, the findings highlighted a greater contribution of work experiences on their learning. That is, the learning situated in the context of work was mainly favoured by the interaction of the new cabin crew with their more experienced colleagues. This study sought to increase the knowledge of the social practices and the learning of the cabin crew to contribute to the improvement of training programmes. Furthermore, this study provides a qualitative perspective on learning situated in the work context of the cabin crew, which could offer solutions to contemporary concerns about effective training in other areas of the aviation industry.

An estimated 120 variations of elevated-work platform (EWP) control panels are currently in use across Australian construction worksites. Transitioning across dissimilar control panels is highly problematic. As a way of mitigating the issues caused by transitioning between control panels, many regulatory and coronial recommendations suggest that operators should pay particular attention to reading and comprehending EWP model-specific manuals. Yet, many EWP operators may have either a low level of literacy or be unable to take the required time off a busy job site to do this effectively. This paper reviews current issues faced internationally with regard to operator transference between EWP control panels and discusses these in relation to current theories from aviation human factors on the risk arising from control variations. In particular, categorisations of controls that are used to differentiate between aircraft flight deck variations are applied to contribute to current knowledge on control variation issues that continuing education in EWP competency need to consider. The development of a control simulator which can be deployed on worksites via mobile technology is discussed in terms of new approaches to the ongoing training and assessment.

This paper reports a cross-sector reflection on a current, simulation-based program for maternity emergency management in an Australian healthcare site. It aims to develop our understandings of how learning can be enhanced through simulation and debriefing practices. It discovers how the healthcare and aviation sectors, which have seen increasing collaboration in areas of human factors and non-technical skills in the last decade, can continue to evolve beyond these areas and considers what each sector can learn from the other. A cross-sector research team observed a one-day course on maternity emergencies. The observers took reflective notes progressively throughout the day and held a post-course discussion about their observations and reflections. Thematic analyses of their cross-sector reflections - observation notes and a transcribed team discussion - identified vague understandings of occupational competence embedded in current simulation-based practices. Possible avenues to improve practices were identified, taking into consideration the differing views among researchers from different sectors.

Working at heights is recognised as high risk work. The dangers of working at heights have been mitigated with the introduction of the elevated-work platform (EWP). However, use of EWPs has resulted in new dangers including overturning, entrapment, and collision. The layout of basket control panels vary significantly among EWP types and models and several variations can often be found in use across the same construction site. EWP operators have indicated the requirement to transition across multiple control panels is problematic. To gain a better understanding of how operators learn to use a new set of controls, this paper examined the initial course operators undertake to gain a licence to operate a boom-type EWP. Video data gained over the three-day program was analysed to elucidate how the trainees identified, selected and tested controls. Results indicate a heavy reliance on unsafe practices such as ‘trying out’ a control when its function is not known and ‘learning from mistakes’ in order to learn what a control does.

Debriefing is routinely used in pilot training. Limited empirical studies, however, have investigated what aspects of debriefing contribute to learning outcomes across professions. In this investigation, we focus on the learning of pilots flying large commercial aircraft in a multi-crew flight deck. The researchers observed, recorded and analysed over 32 biannual simulator training and assessment sessions. Each pilot pair engaged in two kinds of experiences across these two-day assessments: (a) a four-hour simulator session with a one-hour debriefing and (b) a three-hour simulator session with an extended period of debriefing. This preliminary report explores the quality and outcomes of these learning experiences, particularly the efficacy of the simulator-to-debriefing ratio. Thematic analysis of post-debriefing semi-structured interviews with three pilot pairs and their shared flight examiner suggests that appropriate debriefing duration and processes should be determined through considering personal readiness of pilots and situational factors during the training.

Verbalisation (or talk-aloud protocols) has been used as a technique for knowledge elicitation in research for some time. It allows the researcher some degree of access to the reasoning behind participants' decisions. The verbalisation technique is said to directly represent cognitive task processes while not affecting performance. Using a combined methodology of concurrent and retrospective verbalisation to study the effects of verbalisation on pilots' task performance in simulator conditions, the findings of this case study suggest that, on the contrary, instructing operators to verbalise their thought processes while performing complex tasks may interfere with task-related cognition under some conditions, thereby compromising safety.