Objective: Referee abuse has emerged as a growing concern in sport, yet its prevalence and mental health consequences remain underexamined, particularly in amateur contexts. Accordingly, we examined self-reported experiences of physical and verbal abuse among soccer referees and their associations with anxiety and depression symptoms. Method: Participants were 1,183 soccer referees (66.8% White; 80.8% men, 17.6% women, 1.6% gender diverse) from Ontario, Saskatchewan, and British Columbia, Canada. Referees reported exposure to physical and verbal abuse from parents, coaches, players, and spectators and completed measures of anxiety (Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale) and depression (Patient Health Questionnaire). Results: Abuse was widespread: 34.9% of referees reported experiencing physical abuse, and 94.2% reported verbal abuse while officiating. Contrary to hypotheses, women and racialized referees did not experience higher rates of abuse than men or White referees; men reported higher levels of physical abuse than women. Verbal abuse was positively associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression, whereas physical abuse was associated with depression but not anxiety, after controlling for age, gender, and race/ethnicity. Although gender did not significantly moderate associations between abuse and mental health outcomes, the effect sizes for verbal abuse were larger for women. Sensitivity analyses revealed a clear dose-response pattern, with referees reporting more frequent abuse exhibiting significantly higher anxiety and depression symptoms, particularly for frequent verbal abuse. Conclusions: Referee abuse in Canadian amateur soccer is both pervasive and psychologically consequential. These findings underscore the need for system-level policies and interventions to improve referees' safety and protect their mental health across all levels of sport.

There is yet to be a focused review and synthesis on non-accidental violence toward sport officials despite a surge in academic inquiry into the topic over the last 25 years. As such, the aim of this review is to synthesize what is known about non-accidental violence toward sport officials. Articles were selected in March 2025. 32 articles were included in this scoping review with 13 countries and 7 sports represented. 43.7% of studies used qualitative methods, and only 4.1% of the total sample were women officials. Sport officials frequently experienced non-accidental violence, in particular verbal abuse from athletes, coaches, and spectators; organizations were identified as key contributors to the continuation of the problem. Non-accidental violence had serious consequences for sport officials including depression and attrition, particularly for those with limited organizational and/or social support. We recommend future researchers prioritize vulnerable and marginalized sport officiating groups and diversify methodological choices through employing in-depth qualitative methods, using robust demographic questionnaires, and expanding research questions.

This study confirmed that without crowds there was no home advantage in association football during the COVID-19 2020-21 season. Consequently, we sort to answer the obvious question, 'Are crowds influencing referees' behaviour?' The number of home and away red and yellow cards awarded in the 'no crowd' COVID-19 2020-21 season (all 4 top English divisions) were compared with the home and away cards awarded during the previous 10 'crowd' seasons (2010-11 to 2019-20). Results revealed that there was no home advantage in red and yellow cards awarded by referees in all 4 English leagues/divisions during the COVID-19 2020-21 season. Referees awarded significantly more cards to away players when adjudicating with crowds (seasons 2010-11 to 2019-20). However, in more recent 'crowd' seasons, Premier League referees are less susceptible to such influences with a narrowing of the gap between home and away yellow cards, suggesting that their preparation, management and training provides them with an element of 'crowd immunity'. It would appear that home crowds are able to influence all but the very best referees' behaviour. These new insights provide important information for the training and management of referees.

This chapter will provide an insight into, and evaluation of, a theory-based mental health intervention with sports officials. Furthermore, we will provide lessons learned and recommendations that researchers and practitioners could consider when designing interventions to support sports officials' mental health and well-being.

Drawing on original and innovative research from around the world, this book explores issues and opportunities relating to internationalising sport management curriculum. It explains how to design and implement an international curriculum, and therefore how to better equip graduates for work in an increasingly global sport business environment. This book provides an in-depth understanding of the role educational developers can play in the internationalisation of higher education and in the provision of an internationalised learning experience for all students studying sport management around the globe. It introduces the core principles of the internationalisation of sport management education and how to apply those in teaching and learning on university courses, including the provision of study abroad programmes that improve interpersonal and communication skills, adaptability and self-confidence. Adopting a values-driven approach that puts global citizenship, cultural capital and international diversity at the heart of good programme design, this book touches on key issues in contemporary higher education, including employability, student support, inclusivity and equity, building influential learning communities and co-creation in teaching and learning. This is an invaluable resource for instructors, lecturers, course leaders, university administrators and policy makers with an interest in sport-related studies or the development of higher education.

Research question Match official abuse (MOA) in team sports has become a prominent issue within sport management; the effects of MOA on the safety, wellbeing and retention of officials has led to a growth of academic enquiry. The present review aimed to develop a thorough understanding of MOA through the perspective of sport officials from various sports. Research methods The authors conducted a systematic literature review on match officials' experiences of abuse. Research databases (PsychInfo, Scopus, PubMed, Science Direct, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science) were screened for peer-reviewed research published between 1999 and 2022. Sixty studies of mixed research designs were retained and evaluated using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT). Results and Findings Qualitative synthesis of the results identified five key themes of empirical findings pertaining to the nature and prevalence of abuse; the effects of abuse on performance, wellbeing and retention; methods of interpersonal conflict management; facilitators of abuse; and match officials' attitudes towards current support and intervention. Results show that MOA effects individuals at all levels of competition and can adversely affect the performance and wellbeing of officials. Implications The findings are used to identify relevant sport management issues and the authors discuss potential policy outcomes for reducing the prevalence and adverse effects of MOA.

Although referees who officiate in the amateur football leagues are exposed to various stressors that can negatively affect their mental health (MH), little is known about their MH symptoms. The purpose of the study was to evaluate MH symptoms of referees who officiate in the Turkish amateur football leagues. An online survey was sent to all referees in the Turkish amateur football leagues ( n = 4,900) incorporating standardized scales assessing depression, anxiety, and stress. A total of 1,279 referees participated in the study. Female referees reported higher depression ( p < .01) and anxiety ( p = .02) scores than males. Younger referees (23–27 years) reported higher depression ( p = .01) and anxiety ( p < .01) scores than older (>38 years) referees. Results showed that symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress scores were associated with marital status (being single), lower incomes, severe sports injury history, and inadequate social support. In light of these results, MH assessments should be undertaken to detect which referees are at greater risk of MH problems and facilitate appropriate and timely MH interventions. Further study is needed to inform MH risk reduction strategies and/or programming.

Research Question: Despite some management practices that have been identified in the field of human resource retention (HRR) in sport, little is known about the individual practices, especially selecting self-reflective job titles (S-RJTs), and their impact on HRR reflectors. To fill this gap, this study presents retention guidelines by considering the effect of S-RJTs on job burnout and security, through the use of a HRR framework. Research Methods: Using a quasi-experimental design, one hundred eighty paid sport staff (school sport team coaches, public fitness trainers, local sport team coaches, and recreational department employees) working in the sport organizations located at remote areas were randomly assigned to experiment (n = 92) and control (n = 88) groups. The participants were asked to respond to the job burnout and job security questionnaires in Time 1 (at the beginning of the study) and Time 2 (five weeks later). Results and Findings: Results indicated that those professional paid sport staff creating S-RJTs reported less emotional exhaustion and more feelings of job security and continuity over a five-week period, whilst depersonalization and reduced personal accomplishment did not change.

IntroductionSport officials are tasked with applying rules, maintaining fairness, and ensuring athlete safety. However, sport officials experience anxiety, burnout, and non-accidental violence, with the incidence of these events increasing worldwide. This has led to rising attrition rates among sport officials, with many sport organizations concerned for their operational capacity. The effects of anxiety, burnout, and non-accidental violence might contribute to or be indicative of sport officials' negative mental health outcomes. To develop a clear understanding of how sport officials' mental health is affected by their occupation, it is necessary to identify the mental health outcomes and predictors they experience, and to what extent. The purpose of this scoping review was to identify and examine the empirical research and policy documents surrounding sport officials' mental health.MethodOne thousand, two hundred six articles were identified across four databases: PubMed, Web of Science, SportDiscus, and PsycINFO. Next, a policy search was conducted on the respective international governing body websites from English-speaking countries for the 60 included sports. Following screening, 18 studies and one policy document met the inclusion criteria for exploring sport officials' mental health.ResultsParticipants (N = 7,941) in the studies were mainly European male soccer and basketball referees. Most studies utilized quantitative inquiry (n = 15) rather than qualitative methods (n = 2) or framework development (n = 1). The research demonstrated that sport officials frequently experienced negative mental health outcomes and predictors including anxiety, depression, burnout, lower mental health literacy, and high levels of stigmatization towards mental health.DiscussionThese outcomes were influenced by gender/sex, age, and experience. There is a need to explore personal and environmental (including occupational) factors that cause or contribute to sport officials' mental health symptoms and disorders.

The video assistant referee (VAR), popularized in football (soccer), has been decisive in many games played in several international and domestic competitions ever since the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) formalized its use for the first time in the 2018 Men’s Football World Cup. Serving as a support tool for on-field referees, it is not only a game unifier but also a conflict pacifier by using a technology-based method to objectively appreciate whether human decisions were accurate and fair or erroneous and thus in need of correction. Given the overwhelming support evidenced by its broad adoption, but also some criticisms and concerns about this technology, an objective assessment of the growing literature on VAR is timely to take stock of what is known and what is still unknown about its use and perception. Using primarily indexed English literature from 2018 to 2024, this narrative review aims to gauge four main talking points related to VAR, including, but not limited to, the technology used, why VAR is perceived as controversial, and its perception in a socio-cultural context. This review underscores the positive perception of referees towards VAR, highlighting improved decision accuracy and minimal match disruption. Fans and media express trust in VAR, but call for refinements. Concerns about in-stadium communication with spectators suggest a need for enhanced decision transparency. We also acknowledge limitations, including language bias, literature (un)availability and sex-based disparities, while proposing future research avenues. Overall, VAR has become integral to football, shaping its officiating landscape, and inviting continuous improvement.