This study proposed a reverse-engineering approach using a mathematical model to predict the number of microperforations needed for modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) design for 'Nam Dok Mai Si Thong' mangoes packaged in polybutylene succinate (PBS) incorporated with 1 % (w/w) lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) and 10 % (w/w) thymol (PBS + 1LNPs + 10 T). The model was used to determine the optimum number of microperforations for achieving the desired equilibrium modified atmosphere (EMA) for mango (5 % O2 and 15 % CO2) within O2 (2.5 %) and CO2 (20 %) tolerance limits. In the first experiment, respiration rate (RR) values obtained from a closed system along with predetermined data (e.g. produce weight, package area, temperature) were used to predict the number of microperforations required to achieve the desired EMA. Packaging films with 25 microperforations established the desired EMA. Results confirmed that 25 microperforations maintained the best quality throughout 35 days of storage at 12 +/- 2 degrees C. The model was further verified using RR values from real experimental data obtained through a permeable system in the first experiment. An additional 7 and 15 microperforations were introduced to further investigate the effects of microperforations on EMA. Results confirmed that 25 microperforations achieved the desired EMA. The films with 15 and 7 microperforations reduced O2 level to 4 % and elevated CO2 to 18 and 20 %, respectively. Integrating MAP design with antifungal packaging highlights the benefits of combining enhanced functional materials with predictive modeling, as active packaging alone is often insufficient for extending the shelf life of fresh produce.

Novel nanocomposite poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT)/polybutylene succinate (PBS) blend films functionalized with titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles (0, 0.9, 1.8, 2.7, 3.6 and 4.5% w/w) were produced using cast-sheet extrusion. Atomic force microscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis were used to investigate film morphology and structure. The crystallinity of the films was modified due to interactions between the nanoparticles and the PBAT/PBS blends, as confirmed by FTIR and XRD. Tensile strength and elongation of films slightly reduced with TiO2 addition up to 4.5% in both machine direction (MD) and cross direction (CD). The tensile strength of the T5 films was nearly 25% less than the control films. Adding TiO2 gave excellent UV-blocking properties with slightly reduced water vapor by 16.5% and oxygen permeability by 4% for films with maximum loading. The film surface became more hydrophilic, as evidenced by the reduced contact angle. The results, as acquired from turbidity measurements, show that films with 3.6% TiO2 loading and above have high antimicrobial activity against both Bacillus cereus (Gram-positive) and Escherichia coli (Gram-negative). The relative area of microbial growth on agar media exhibited better antibacterial capacity against Escherichia coli than Bacillus cereus, with a sharp reduction of microbial growth at TiO2 contents above 2.7%. Films containing TiO2 (≥0.9%) effectively delayed ripening and increased peel yellowness of packaged bananas during storage for 6 days at room temperature. The developed PBAT/PBS/TiO2 nanocomposites films hence showed enhanced UV-resistance and antimicrobial properties, while maintaining adequate mechanical strength necessary for food packaging. The film is an eco-friendly alternative antimicrobial food packaging to extend the shelf-life of fresh produce.

Packaging is one of the major domains in the food processing industry that reduces waste and enhances product shelf life. Recently, research and development have focused on bioplastics and bioresources to combat environmental issues caused by the alarming growth of single-use plastic waste food packaging. The demand for natural fibres has recently increased because of their low cost, biodegradability and eco-friendliness. This article reviewed recent developments in natural fibre-based food packaging materials. The first part discusses the introduction of natural fibres in food packaging, with a focus on fibre source, composition and selection parameters, while the second part investigates the physical and chemical ways to modify natural fibres. Several plant-derived fibre materials have been utilised in food packaging as reinforcements, fillers and packaging matrices. Recent investigations developed and modified natural fibre (physical and chemical treatments) into packaging using casting, melt mixing, hot pressing, compression moulding, injection moulding, etc. These techniques majorly improved the strength of bio-based packaging for commercialisation. This review also identified the main research bottlenecks and future study areas were suggested.

Polybutylene succinate (PBS) film containing spherical lignin nanoparticles (LNP) and natural agents (NA) such as vanillin (VAN), trans-cinnamaldehyde (CIN), and citral (CIT) was produced via blown film extrusion. The effect of the substance on controlled release qualities and inhibitory action against tropical fruit diseases in the vapor phase was investigated. Solvent extraction results revealed that PBS/LNP/NA composite films have a greater remaining content of each active agent than PBS/NA films. The morphology, mechanical properties, and barrier properties of the PBS/LNP/NA composite films were influenced by the lignin and natural agents. The release behavior of natural agents released into the headspace was appropriately described by mathematical models, with diffusion mainly dependent on NA concentration. According to the diffusion coefficient, PBS/LNP/ NA films have a slow and steady constant release into a food matrix. Trans-cinnamaldehyde exhibited the fastest migration, followed by vanillin and citral, with diffusion coefficients ranging from 10-9 to 10-13 m2/s. Furthermore, the composite films were found to exhibit improved antifungal efficacy against Colletotrichum gloeosporioides in the vapor phase. The results show that the biodegradable PBS/LNP/NA film could potentially be used as active packaging to extend the shelf life of tropical fruits.

The morphology and properties of biodegradable packaging comprising thermoplastic agar and poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) blends (20/80 and 40/60 ratios) produced via cast extrusion were characterized. These polymers were blended with gallic acid (GA) and determined for oxygen scavenging activity. Increasing agar content formed non-homogeneous PBAT matrices with dispersed clumps, while GA facilitated the unfolding of agar molecules and reduced the number of clumps. GA interacted with agar and PBAT by modifying the CO and C–H stretching vibrations, causing polymer blend plasticization and decreasing the mechanical relaxation temperature. Addition of agar and GA modified the crystallinity, morphology, and barrier properties of PBAT. Compounding GA into the polymer matrices effectively enhanced oxygen scavenging, while oxygen absorption rates increased with increasing relative humidity (RH) from 50% to 100%. Rates and maximum scavenging capacity depended on GA contents and humidity at 50% RH, while higher humidity showed insignificant effects of GA contents, suggesting additional roles of polymer structures involving oxygen diffusion through the matrices. Blending thermoplastic agar at 20% in PBAT films produced biobased sustainable food packaging and effectively enhanced oxygen scavenging active functions.

Waste management in the agricultural sector has become a major concern. Increased food production to satisfy the surge in population has resulted in the generation of large volumes of solid waste. Agro-waste is a rich source of biocompounds with high potential as a raw material for food packaging. Utilization of agro-waste supports the goal of sustainable development in a circular economy. This paper reviews recent trends and the development of agro-wastes from plant and animal sources into eco-friendly food packaging systems. Different plant and animal sources and their potential development into packaging are discussed, including crop residues, process residues, vegetable and fruit wastes, and animal-derived wastes. A comprehensive analysis of the properties and production methods of these packages is presented. Future aspects of agro-waste packaging systems and the inherent production problems are addressed.

Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) with enhanced antimicrobial functions can be used as sustainable food packaging to control microbial growth and reduce waste. PLA trays containing carvacrol (CAR) and cinnamaldehyde (CIN) as natural antimicrobial essential oils (EOs) were developed by cast sheet extrusion and thermoforming. Infrared spectra indicated interaction between CAR and CIN with PLA, involving the CO bond in carbonyl and the C-H bond in methyl groups of PLA molecules. Incorporation of CAR and CIN produced clear PLA trays with modified X-ray diffraction angles of amorphous PLA structures. Shrinkage of the trays occurred at high EO levels, reducing tray depth. Adding both CAR and CIN reduced tray mechanical strength due to plasticization and water vapor permeability but increased oxygen permeability, suggesting the major effect of hydrophilicity-hydrophobicity on permeability. PLA with CAR (5 % and 8 %) had superior antimicrobial capacity against Escherichia coli than PLA/CIN, while trays containing both EOs effectively delayed mold growth as active cake packaging, with CAR showing higher mold inhibition. Accordingly, EO types and concentrations controls mechanical strength, barrier properties and shrinkage of thermoformed PLA trays, while enhancing microbial controls in bakery products.

The natural abundance, polymer stability, biodegradability, and natural antimicrobial properties of lignin open a wide range of potential applications aiming for sustainability. In this work, the effects of 1% (w/w) softwood kraft lignin nanoparticles (SLNPs) on the physicochemical properties of polybutylene succinate (PBS) composite films were investigated. Incorporation of SLNPs into neat PBS enhanced Td from 354.1 °C to 364.7 °C, determined through TGA, whereas Tg increased from −39.1 °C to −35.7 °C while no significant change was observed in Tm and crystallinity, analyzed through DSC. The tensile strength of neat PBS increased, to 35.6 MPa, when SLNPs were added to it. Oxygen and water vapor permeabilities of PBS with SLNPs decreased equating to enhanced barrier properties. The good interactions among SLNPs, thymol, and PBS matrix, and the high homogeneity of the resultant PBS composite films, were determined through FTIR and FE-SEM analyses. This work revealed that, among the PBS composite films tested, PBS + 1% SLNPs + 10% thymol showed the strongest microbial growth inhibition against Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Lasiodiplodia theobromae, both in vitro, through a diffusion method assay, and in actual testing on active packaging of mango fruit (cultivar “Nam Dok Mai Si Thong”). SLNPs could be an attractive replacement for synthetic substances for enhancing polymer properties without compromising the biodegradability of the resultant material, and for providing antimicrobial functions for active packaging applications.

The shift of using biodegradable materials for food packaging is becoming a global trend, as environmental consciousness constantly being raised. Enhancing the antimicrobial performance of biodegradable packaging has greatly received much attention for minimizing environmental impacts by reducing food and plastic wastes. This work explored the potential of utilizing an abundant industrial waste lignin as antimicrobial packaging. The effects of lignin nanoparticles (LNPs) incorporated into polybutylene succinate (PBS) composite film, against Aspergillus niger and Penicillium spp., the major microorganisms causing fungal spoilage in bread were investigated. At a low concentration of 0.5 % (w/v), LNPs showed fungal growth inhibition (FGI) in vitro of 51.89 % and 55.94 % against A. niger and Penicillium spp. When incorporated into PBS composite containing 5 % cinnamaldehyde (CIN), 1 % (w/w) LNPs showed stronger antifungal activities against Penicillium spp. than A. niger. Barrier properties and water contact angle were also enhanced with the presence of 1 % (w/w) LNPs in the PBS, but there were no effects on tensile strength, glass transition temperature, and melting temperature (Tm). Bread packed in PBS containing 1 % LNPs + 5 % CIN showed lowest yeast and mold count (YMC) of < 1.0 log CFU g–1, which was the same as the initial count, whereas YMC in other bread samples increased to > 2.0 log CFU g–1 after storage for 14 days at 25 ± 2 °C. Results suggest that LNPs in biodegradable materials such as PBS could help extend the shelf life of bread and possibly be applied to other food products that are susceptible to fungal spoilage.

This study investigated the inhibitory activity of organic solutions containing 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30% (w/v) sodium chloride and citric acid solution and 15:10, 15:15, 15:20 and 15:30% (w/v) sodium chloride (NaCl) combined with citric acid (CA) solution (salt/acid solution) for 10 min against microorganisms isolated from trimmed young coconut: Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, Enterobacter aerogenes, Serratia marcescens, Candida tropicalis, Lodderromyces elongisporus, Aspergillus aculeatus and Penicillium citrinum. Commercial antimicrobial agents such as potassium metabisulfite and sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) were used as the controls. Results showed that 30% (w/v) NaCl solution displayed antimicrobial properties against all microorganisms, with s reduction range of 0.00-1.49 log CFU/mL. Treatment of 30% (w/v) CA solution inhibited all microorganisms in the reduction range of 1.50-8.43 log CFU/mL, while 15:20% (w/v) salt/acid solution was the minimum concentration that showed a similar antimicrobial effect with NaOCl and strong antimicrobial effect against Gram-negative bacteria. The mode of action of this solution against selected strains including B. cereus, E. aerogenes and C. tropicalis was also determined by scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. B. cereus and E. aerogenes revealed degradation and detachment of the outer layer of the cell wall and cytoplasm membrane, while cytoplasmic inclusion in treated C. tropicalis cells changed to larger vacuoles and rough cell walls. The results suggested that a 15:20% (w/v) salt/acid solution could be used as an alternative antimicrobial agent to eliminate microorganisms on fresh produce.

Sulfite solution has been commonly used on trimmed young coconut (TYC) and other produce to prolong shelf life, but it has been banned in many countries due to its allergenic reaction in sensitive individuals. This study has developed sulfite-free treatment together with modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) which could prolong shelf life of TYC during cold storage. The main goal of this work was to investigate qualities during cold storage at 2 degrees C for 8 weeks of TYC treated with salt/acid solution (15% sodium chloride and 20% citric acid) then packed in MAP at an oxygen transmission rate (OTR) of 3200 cm3/m2/day (SA-MAP), compared with a conventional sulfite agent treatment (KMS wrapped with PVC). Moreover, microbial profiles were investigated by nextgeneration sequencing (NGS), matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and 18S rRNA gene sequencing. The result showed treatment of SA-MAP had effective control TYC qualities over 8-week storage comparable with the KMS treatment. Twelve genera of bacterial communities on TYC including Bacillus spp., Enterococcus sp., Enterobacter spp., Klebsiella sp., Kocuria sp., Lysinbacillus sp., Microbacterium sp., Micrococcus sp., Ochrobactrum spp., Pantoea spp. Staphylococcus spp. and Serratia sp. were the most abundant strains. On the other hand, microbial profiles of SA-MAP showed only Bacillus spp., Staphylococcus spp. and Candida spp. as the predominant microorganisms on TYC during cold storage. Using salt/acid combined with MAP was proposed as an alternative organic treatment to extend the shelf life of TYC for exportation.

The challenge to enhance the properties and functionalities of biobased polymers for food packaging without compromising biodegradability has brought the incorporation of different compounds derived from natural resources. Lignin, an abundant waste from the paper and pulp industry has earned attention to explore and transform into useful, high-value products because of its inherent antimicrobial, antioxidant, and UV-blocking properties. This paper reviewed the effects of incorporation of lignin into biobased polymers potential for active packaging applications. Changes in the mechanical, barrier, and thermal properties of biobased polymers as a result of the incorporation of lignin are also highlighted. However, the main obstacle to exploiting the beneficial effects of lignin lies in its heterogeneous and complex molecular structure. Nevertheless, there is an increasing research interest on the beneficial uses of lignin for the commercialization of biobased polymers that could have an impact on the reduction of wastes from food packaging materials.

Seafood is a highly economical product worldwide. Primary modes of deterioration include autolysis, oxidation of protein and lipids, formation of biogenic amines and melanosis, and microbial deterioration. These post-harvest losses can be properly handled if the appropriate packaging technology has been applied. Therefore, it is necessary for packaging deterioration relevance to be clearly understood. This review demonstrates recent polymeric packaging technology for seafood products. Relationship between packaging and quality deterioration, including microbial growth and chemical and biochemical reactions, are discussed. Recent technology and trends in the development of seafood packaging are demonstrated by recent research articles and patents. Development of functional polymers for active packaging is the largest area for seafood applications. Intelligent packaging, modified atmosphere packaging, thermal insulator cartons, as well as the method of removing a fishy aroma have been widely developed and patented to solve the specific and comprehensive quality issues in seafood products. Many active antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds have been found and successfully incorporated with polymers to preserve the quality and monitor the fish freshness. A thermal insulator has also been developed for seafood packaging to preserve its freshness and avoid deterioration by microbial growth and enzymatic activity. Moreover, the enhanced biodegradable tray is also innovative as a single or bulk fish container for marketing and distribution. Accordingly, this review shows emerging polymeric packaging technology for seafood products and the relevance between packaging and seafood qualities.

Nanotechnology has demonstrated significant contributions in a vast array of industrial applications including food packaging. Clearly, food packaging has gained momentum in research and commercialization, according to substantial growth of global food demand. Food packaging must perform its role in retaining food quality and safety, extending shelf-life while having the least negative impact to the environment, or even better being environmental friendly. This chapter, therefore, brings together the two challenges of nanotechnology phenomena and demanding functions of food packaging from fresh to processed food for the global market. Content is arranged into three major parts; functional packaging, active packaging followed by regulation and safety aspects of nanomaterials for food packaging. The first part focuses on functional packaging based on lignocellulosic nanomaterials (cellulose nanocrystals, cellulose nanofibers, and lignin nanoparticles). Such nanomaterials have been incorporated with various polymers in recent investigations which essentially lead to in-depth knowledge, together with possible means for nanocellulose and lignin valorization. Lignocellulosic nanomaterials have received considerable interest because of their unique and valuable properties, giving rise to growth opportunity for novel food packaging. Other nanomaterials providing specific properties, such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, gas nanoscavengers, and ultraviolet shielding, are covered in the second part of active packaging. To convert the developed nanocomposites or nanomaterial incorporated polymer into practical packaging films with desirable properties, also included is a brief discussion on producing the target engineered films using the existing industrial process. At the end, an overview of recent findings and current trends in regulation and safety of common nanomaterials for food packaging is outlined.

Trimmed young coconut (TYC) contributes to global economic trade but it has major issues with microbial and browning spoilage during cold chain operation. A non-allergenic alternative to sulfite treatment is proposed in the present study. TYCs were dipped in salt acid solution (SA; 10% sodium chloride and 10% citric acid), stored in three different controlled atmosphere (CA) conditions and at an atmospheric condition as a control at 2 °C for 8 weeks. The physical, microbiological, chemical qualities of the TYCs were then determined during whole storage. The results indicate that use of SA combined with CA (5% O2 + 7.5% CO2) showed the best condition with the lowest average browning index of 29.13. The microbial counts were less than 4 log CFU/area with PCR-DGGE suggested an inhibition of some food spoilage bacteria. Titratable acidity, total soluble solid content, and pH ranged from 0.026-0.071%, 6.86-8.96 °Brix, and 5.38-6.51, respectively.

Microorganisms causing anthracnose diseases have a medium to a high level of resistance to the existing fungicides. This study aimed to investigate neem plant extract (propyl disulfide, PD) as an alternative to the current fungicides against mango’s anthracnose. Microorganisms were isolated from decayed mango and identified as Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Colletotrichum acutatum. Next, a pathogenicity test was conducted and after fulfilling Koch’s postulates, fungi were reisolated from these symptomatic fruits and we thus obtained pure cultures. Then, different concentrations of PD were used against these fungi in vapor and agar diffusion assays. Ethanol and distilled water were served as control treatments. PD significantly (p ≤ 0.05) inhibited more of the mycelial growth of these fungi than both controls. The antifungal activity of PD increased with increasing concentrations. The vapor diffusion assay was more effective in inhibiting the mycelial growth of these fungi than the agar diffusion assay. A good fit (R2, 0.950) of the experimental data in the Gompertz growth model and a significant difference in the model parameters, i.e., lag phase (λ), stationary phase (A) and mycelial growth rate, further showed the antifungal efficacy of PD. Therefore, PD could be the best antimicrobial compound against a wide range of microorganisms.

This study was aimed to develop conductive packaging for ohmic heating. Polypropylene (PP) was mixed with conductive material (CM) in the ratios of 70:30 (CM30), 75:25 (CM25), and 80:20 (CM20) (w/w), then the conductive bottles were developed using extrusion blow molding process. The bottles were suspended in different sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) solutions (0.2, 0.3, and 0.5% w/w) as a transmitting current medium for ohmic heating and heated for 8 min. The CM30 and CM 25 had the highest electrical conductivity compared to the CM20, however the CM20 exhibited best processability, hence it was selected to be used for ohmic heating of orange juice. Different concentrations of Na2SO4 solutions had the effects on ohmic heating. The CM20 bottle suspended in 0.2% Na2SO4 solution resulted in the most uniform heating and suitable for ohmic processing of orange juice. The new conductive bottles developed could potentially be used for beverage processing by ohmic heating.

Summary An integrated control strategy on preventing pericarp browning (BI) and decay incidence (DI) of longan fruit was investigated to replace sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) fumigation. Fruit was treated with 5% ascorbic acid (AA), citric acid (CA), oxalic acid (OA), thymol (TH) and 2% chitosan (CH) for 5 min; sealed under modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) using high permeable film; and stored at 5 °C. Fruit treated with distilled water and sealed under MAP condition (MAPC) and air condition (AIRC) was used as controls. Combined effects of chemical treatments and MAP maintained quality of longan for 56 and 49 days in CH and TH, respectively, as compared to 28 days in MAPC and 21 days in AIRC. AA, CA and OA prevented BI, restrained enzyme activities and maintained high phenols. AA, CA and OA were most potent BI inhibitors; however, DI was the limitation of these treatments, while CH and TH effectively inhibited DI.