3GPP has finalized the publication of 5G specifications in Release 16, also called 5G phase 2 in 3GPP, which focuses on the enhancements of 5G basis to address more use cases in the 5G ecosystem. In Release 16, 3GPP took into account a variety of vertical markets in 5G, where security requirements and corresponding mechanisms are increasingly in focus. One of the important security features introduced in 3GPP Release 16 is the Authentication and Key Management for Applications (AKMA), which is similar to the Generic Bootstrapping Architecture (GBA) specified in earlier generations, leveraging an operator authentication infrastructure in order to secure the communication between the UE and an Application Function (AF). To help understand the origin and principles of AKMA better, this article first introduces mechanisms specified before 5G, including GBA and Battery Efficient Security for very low Throughput Machine (BEST), then presents the AKMA specification in more detail, and finally summarizes the enhancements of AKMA compared to preceding mechanisms.

A concrete architecture presents the organization of the components of an actual system and is a result of a design process that takes into account real requirements for the actual system. The collection of the real requirements typically happens in parallel with the design process, and system designers initially start with a reference model and architecture as a first-order approximation of the actual system architecture. Since this book is an introduction to the design process of IoT systems, a reference model and architecture is sufficient for a system designer. Chapter 7 presents the state-of-the-art in terms of IoT architectures. This chapter provides parts and fragments of an architecture maintained by standards development organizations, alliances, and technology communities. The chapter does not claim full coverage of the possible outlets which develop parts and whole architectures but it attempts to cover the major organizations and groups focusing on different aspects on IoT.

An architecture assists to in a structured way build successful technical solutions. An architecture provides the methodology and tools when designing the Internet of Things (IoT) system. It covers how to capture the intent of and requirement on the system, key elements, and interactions. An overall design objective of an IoT architecture shall be to target a horizontal system of real-world services that are open, service-oriented, and secure and offer trust. The architecture shall span the necessary functional elements, how they interact, and how they can be realized. Standardization is important as it provides the means for commonly agreed technology building blocks as well as architecture design patterns that ease system development and allow interoperability. This chapter provides an introduction to architecture and system design and some of the main functional elements of an IoT architecture, as well as a basic understanding of standardization considerations for IoT.

IoT can be seen as the convergence of different disciplines and practices, such as embedded technologies, Machine-to-Machine, Artificial Intelligence, Cyber-Physical Systems, and the Internet itself. The evolution to IoT is triggered by a set of megatrends and global game changers that present new challenges and opportunities, as well as underlying technology developments. The emerging IoT is characterized by innovation, openness, and trust. It targets the acquisition of insights about real-world objects and the automation of processes involving "things".

The industrial systems of the future are seen as complex systems, composed of vast numbers of devices, interacting with each other and with enterprise systems continuously. Modern technologies and concepts such as web services, service-oriented architectures (SOAs), the cloud, etc. make it possible for sophisticated infrastructures to emerge in future factories. We take a closer look at key visionary aspects that are expected to be mainstream in the industrial automation domain in the years to come, and the pivotal role of IoT. Additionally, we investigate the impact on the collaboration of machines among themselves and with enterprise systems and their services.

This chapter provides an overview of the market and technical drivers for the Internet of Things as a motivation for the book.

Smart Cities are a concept that has gained a lot of attention over the last decade – from solutions that ensure more efficient use and monitoring of air quality, lighting, and traffic to concepts that are designed to ensure citizen engagement and "fun" technology – and has been seen as an opportunity to redefine how we live, work, and play in our urban environments. Cities, however are complex environments and house not just companies, but also schools, hospitals, and green areas. Just exactly what a smart city is and how much citizen data is appropriately used within such systems is a key question that has been raised in many different areas. This chapter investigates these areas and outlines different use cases and business models for this promising and complex area of IoT.

This chapter outlines the technical design constraints to illustrate the questions that need to be taken into account when developing and implementing M2M and IoT solutions in the real world.

This chapter presents an overview of technology fundamentals – the building blocks upon which the IoT rests. Here, we cover devices and gateways, personal, local and Wide Area Networking, Data Management, business processes, and cloud and analytics technologies. Devices form the physical basis of the Internet of Things and provide functions for sensing and actuating in the physical world. Local and Wide Area Networks provide these with the necessary infrastructure to connect to cloud services and associated applications. Data Management handles essential functions such as data acquisition, validation, and storage and makes sure that critical information is available at the right point, in a timely manner, and in the right form. Business processes refers to the series of steps to perform management, operational, and supporting activities for achieving specific mission objectives. XaaS is used as a general term to describe the functions provided as a service by cloud infrastructures, such as computational capacity, software, networking, and storage. Analytics are used to extract additional value from data generated by devices and enable new opportunities by using data from devices for multiple purposes, many of which may not have been imagined at the time of deployment. Knowledge Management Frameworks provide the ability to understand data-generated information and may leverage existing experiences within certain decision making contexts.

This chapter describes the state-of-the-art in autonomous vehicles, broadly defined, and discusses how their interactions via the Internet of Things are contributing to emerging systems of Cyber-Physical Systems. Extending from the example of autonomous vehicles, which may include cars, airborne drones, and trains, their interactions via the Internet taken together with their further interaction with increasingly intelligent infrastructures are evolving into complex macrosystems, or systems of cyber-physical systems. These macrosystems may extend to the size and scale of megacities, even nations, but may also be industrial processes such as those found in mining. This evolution is examined, concluding with a discussion of a number of significant consequential challenges.

The Internet of Things (IoT) has moved beyond the hype, with promising applications materializing and industries transforming through digitalization as well as servitization-that is, delivering a service as an integral part of a product. Since the application spread in today's IoT is wide and is typically structured in market-oriented groups, a system designer needs IoT system design patterns to assist in designing for scalable and replicable solutions. The work presented here provides a generic blueprint for designers to jumpstart the design process of an unknown use case.

The current Internet of Things technology landscape is admittedly plagued with fragmentation. Fragmentation in IoT seems to be abundant ranging from the device hardware, operating system and software to device-to-device and device-to-cloud-based infrastructure protocols, to the actual cloud-based infrastructure and tools used for developing and operating software that runs on these two opposite ends of the system. As such it is challenging for a developer to decide the development, deployment and operational technologies for a complete end-to-end IoT solution. In this paper we focus on the performance evaluation and technology selection of the cloud end of the system. Given that a modern IoT cloud infrastructure is based on a microservices platform, we tackle the challenge of the selection of a Microservice Application Server (MAS) among several available in the developer community for the task of data collection from IoT devices. This paper provides two key contributions. First of all we present an empirical evaluation between different JVM-based MASs and corresponding client/frameworks taking into consideration throughput (req/s), memory footprint and binary footprint. Secondly we provide an open-source testbed that can be used for reproducing the current evaluation and for extending the evaluation towards additional MASs that have been implemented in different runtimes/programming languages.