Background Differentiating blunt trauma from firearm injury can be challenging, particularly when dealing with comminuted cranial fractures. One observation suggesting a diagnostic clue was the scatter pattern of small bone fragments. The hypothesis tested was that firearm injuries produce smaller fragments that remain clustered more closely than those resulting from blunt trauma. Material and Methods Four cases of cranial firearm injury and four cases of high-energy blunt trauma (pedestrian–train collisions) were arbitrarily selected. All cases underwent PMCT using a Siemens Somatom Definition Flash scanner following standard protocols (Flach et al.). CT datasets were segmented for the head region, selecting material with a density ≥ 300 HU. Metric analysis was performed on all fragments< 8 mm. Visualization was done in syngo.via (Siemens Healthineers, Switzerland) and Blender 4.4 (Blender Foundation, Amsterdam, NL) according to Decker et al. Statistical analysis used SAS software (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA). Results and Discussion Preliminary results showed distinct size distributions between firearm and blunt trauma fragments (Wilcoxon p < 0.001). Max. fragment extent [mm], Firearm injury: 25% 0.46 | Median 0.58 | 75% 1.17, Blunt trauma: 25% 0.56 | Median 1.20 | 75% 2.67.Fragments < 8 mm were localized along the wound tract in firearm injuries, but more diffusely distributed in blunt trauma. Inter-fragment distances were smaller for firearm injuries (Wilcoxon p < 0.001). Inter-fragment distance [mm], Firearm injury: 25% 1.30 | Median 1.99 | 75% 3.26, Blunt trauma: 25% 2.31 | Median 4.02 | 75% 7.18.Distinguishing small metallic particles from bone remains difficult due to partial-volume effects. Fragment loss in severe trauma or decomposition limits interpretation. Whole-skull segmentation introduces issues from small non-relevant structures (e.g., mastoid cells). Nonetheless, geometric particle statistics appear promising for differentiating trauma mechanisms. First results and visualizations will be presented at the conference.

Several studies have examined the force achieved by elite or professional fighters by fist punches and knee strikes, but only a few studies investigated the performance of average young persons without martial arts or boxing experience. Ten healthy men and ten healthy women were required to strike a padded force-measuring plate at a right angle ten times as hard as possible with head butts, fist punches, elbow blows, and knee strikes. Age, sex, body size, and mass were compared to the impact forces generated by the different striking modes. The highest striking force was achieved with knee strikes for both men and women; interestingly, women tended to achieve higher impact forces with knee strikes than men (maximum 2560 N vs 2521 N). Women displayed similar results with fist punches and elbow blows (approx. 500-550 N), whereas men performed best in elbow blows (median 922 N), followed by fist punches (median 721 N), and head butts (median 652 N), with the latter surpassing the women's median head butt striking force of 372 N. Men achieved higher striking forces than women with head butts, fist punches and, elbow blows but not with knee strikes. Striking force increased with body mass. The average striking force of head butts, fist punches, and elbow blows was below the mean fracture threshold of approximately 1350 N as stated in the literature, knee strikes, on the other hand, easily surpassed the proposed fracture threshold.

Post-mortem computed tomography (PMCT) is a valuable tool in forensic practice, aiding in the medico-legal investigation of infant deaths, especially when evaluating for possible non-accidental injury or trauma. However, PMCT findings can sometimes highlight findings of unclear significance, such as iatrogenic or post-mortem gas accumulation, which complicates the interpretation of antemortem pathology, such as traumatic or spontaneous pneumothoraces. Pneumothoraces in general are often associated with trauma in the clinical context, posing a risk for misinterpretation in autopsy investigations.We present two cases: an 8-month-old infant and a newborn involving concealment of birth, both of whom presented with pneumothoraces on PMCT. In each case, PMCT demonstrated gas patterns that could be misinterpreted as signs of trauma or non-accidental injury. Careful examination of the PMCT findings, post-mortem interval analysis, autopsy planning and special dissection technique to ascertain the distribution and origin of the gas allowed for recognition of these features as spurious findings (or false indicators) rather than indicators of trauma.

The accurate documentation of bodies, injuries, death scenes, accidents, and crime scenes is fundamental to forensic investigations. Traditional two-dimensional (2D) photography and written reports have inherent limitations in representing complex spatial relationships. Recently, three-dimensional (3D) surface documentation technologies, including laser-scanning, structured light scanning, and photogrammetry, have been integrated into forensic practice to provide accurate, measurable, and reproducible digital evidence. This review provides an overview of current 3D methods and discusses their principles, advantages, and typical applications in documenting crime scenes and human remains. Furthermore, it introduces emerging image-based reconstruction approaches, such as neural radiance fields (NeRF) and 3D Gaussian splatting (3DGS), which generate high-quality reconstructions from multiple images. The integration of 3D data into immersive environments, such as virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR), is also addressed, highlighting its potential in forensic analysis, courtroom presentation, and education. With the rapid evolution of 3D technologies, it is essential to understand the strengths and limitations of each technique in forensic applications. Future developments in algorithms and immersive integration will expand digital forensic capabilities.

BACKGROUND:This study aims to investigate the correlation between pulmonary fat embolism (PFE), blunt force trauma and the effects of resuscitation in pediatric fatalities. METHODS:Data for this study covered deaths of 57 children aged 0 to 10 years, which underwent full autopsy at the Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine from 2019 to 2023. Variables collected included anamnestic information on the presence of trauma (accidental, non-accidental), fracture and fatty tissue crushing extent, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) - with and without intraosseous catheter - and the grade of pulmonary fat embolism (PFE) according to Falzi et al. RESULTS: The study analyzed 57 pediatric autopsy cases and found that PFE occurred more frequently in cases with both trauma and resuscitation, particularly when intraosseous catheters were used. Fat tissue crushing extent and fracture extent correlated with PFE development, while CPR alone did not. Notably, PFE could arise without fractures, likely due to fatty tissue crushing, and the highest PFE grades were observed in trauma cases with extensive fat crushing. CONCLUSIONS:PFE can arise without fractures, likely from fatty tissue crushing alone. CPR with intraosseous catheters, correlated with moderate PFE (Falzi grade 2), but CPR alone did not strongly predict PFE in children.

Photographic documentation of forensic findings during autopsy traditionally relies on two-dimensional overview and detail photos. Modern photogrammetry enables the generation of high-resolution 3D models, with lighting techniques having a significant influence on model quality. The aim of this study was to compare a stationary high-performance setup with four studio flashes, a mobile low-budget setup using a ring flash, and reference methods without external lighting, with respect to acquisition efficiency, texture quality, and practical applicability. Ten bodies were fully documented photographically, whereby image acquisition was performed using a Sony Alpha 7 R V with standardized camera settings. 3D model generation was conducted using 3DF Zephyr. Several ambient lighting and camera parameter configurations, acquisition time, as well as 3D texture quality, and artefact formation were evaluated. In both flash-supported methods, the images required for high-resolution models could be acquired within 3-6 min with the stationary setup showing the most consistent results, while the mobile setup revealed strengths in confined anatomical regions. Reference methods without controlled lighting proved less suitable due to texture inconsistencies, lower texture resolution, or prolonged acquisition times. Subjective model quality and interpretability were additionally assessed by eight forensic specialists using a structured rating scheme, further supporting the superiority of flash-assisted methods. In conclusion, controlled lighting and stable acquisition parameters are essential for high-quality and reproducible photogrammetric documentation in forensic autopsy practice.

Accurate determination of fetal or neonatal age is vital in forensic and medicolegal death investigations. The pars basilaris of the occipital bone, one of the earliest and densest ossification centers, is less susceptible to taphonomic alteration than other measurements, and exhibits predictable growth patterns. Utilizing post mortem computed tomography (PMCT), measurements of the pars basilaris - specifically its maximum length (ML) and maximum width (MW) - can be applied to validated regression models to estimate age. We retrospectively reviewed all fetal and stillbirth/neonate PMCT cases from our institution over the past eight years and identified nine cases with known or previously estimated ages. ML and MW of the pars basilaris were measured in thin maximum intensity projection reconstructions. Age predictions and 95% confidence intervals were calculated using published regression equations based separately on ML and MW. We also derived a combined model to yield a single age estimate with its corresponding confidence interval. In all nine cases, the predicted age intervals included the known or previously estimated age. The results indicate that pars basilaris biometry reliably estimates age using PMCT. Cases involving maternal conditions-such as diabetes, preeclampsia, and alcohol exposure-showed deviations from average pars basilaris growth but remained within statistical confidence limits. Pars basilaris biometry via standard PMCT protocols provides a straightforward method to approach fetal and early infant age estimation in forensic contexts. Although maternal and pathological factors can influence bone size, the combined ML/MW model is accurate within its 95% confidence bounds. Further research should validate these findings across diverse populations and investigate integration with additional growth markers.

Intracranial needling is an exceptionally rare phenomenon, with approximately 40 cases described in the literature globally. We report the first known case in South Africa involving a three-month-old infant, whose brain imaging revealed six intracranial needles. The infant, who has been hospitalised his entire life and was already critically ill with sepsis and known congenital anomalies, underwent a computed tomography (CT) scan after developing focal seizures, which incidentally detected the foreign bodies. Post-mortem examination confirmed six hollow needles embedded within the brain, introduced via the fontanelles. Histopathological analysis revealed chronic reactive gliosis and chronic subdural haematoma, indicating survival for a period following insertion. The cause of death was attributed to overwhelming sepsis rather than needle injury. Advanced imaging techniques, including 3D volume-rendered reconstructions and stereoscopic imaging, were crucial for assessing the number, location, and trajectory of the needles, enhancing autopsy planning and forensic documentation. This case highlights the critical role of post-mortem CT imaging in detecting covert injuries, especially in vulnerable populations, and underscores the necessity of routine PMCT in unexplained infant deaths. Without imaging, grievous assault may have remained undiscovered. The findings also demonstrate the forensic advantages of advanced imaging techniques for medico-legal investigations and courtroom presentations.

When the time since death must be calculated forensic pathologists often consider a calculation based on the Henssge nomogram. This calculation requires an estimated body weight. Previous research has indicated that healthcare workers generally inaccurately guessed patients' body weights. In recent years, weight estimation methods based on anthropometric parameters, such as mid-arm or waist circumference, have been shown to improve estimation accuracy. This study aimed to examine whether anthropometric weight estimation methods could improve weight estimation accuracy compared to visual estimation in forensic pathology. In 199 cases from a Swiss population, we measured the actual body weight, mid-arm circumference, waist circumference, and body height before autopsy. Additionally, two forensic pathologists visually estimated the body weight. We found mid-arm circumferences to correlate the strongest with actual body weight (Pearson 'sr 0.87, 95 % CI 0.83-0.90). However, all mid-arm circumference-based estimation methods performed worse than those previously described. A statistical bias between -12.3 % and -14.5 % indicated a systematic weight underestimation. Combined two-physician visual estimation performed significantly better than anthropometric measurements in our population but showed no difference from anthropometric estimation methods previously described in the literature. Further research is needed on novel body weight estimation methods that are currently not applicable for the global population.

Conventional photogrammetry faces challenges with non-textured, transparent, or reflective surfaces, affecting accurate 3D modeling, particularly in forensic documentation. This study evaluates improvements using lower exposure, exposure bracketing, and RAW format for better 3D modeling of such surfaces. Two bodies were photographed under controlled conditions to assess techniques for non-textured surfaces, with a comparison set for textured surfaces. The experiments were conducted in an autopsy room with a Nikon D5500 camera, adjusting for low exposure, exposure bracketing, RAW format, and increased photo redundancy. Models with Meshroom (Alicevision). Our focus was on visual plausibility rather than quantitative metrics. Results indicated that using RAW format with exposure bracketing and low exposure significantly improved 3D models by reducing artificial edges seen with standard JPG images, despite some noise. A redundant series of RAW photos further reduced artifacts and noise, demonstrating the effectiveness of averaging photos to enhance model quality. However, these modifications showed marginal improvements on textured surfaces, underscoring their significant benefits primarily for non-textured surfaces. This study highlights the potential of modified photogrammetry techniques in forensic science, particularly for documenting challenging surfaces. It points out the need for further research, given its limitations in sample size and the absence of extensive parameter testing and quantitative analysis.

Objectives Photogrammetry is widely used in forensic practice to create 3D models of crime scenes, bodies, living individuals, and objects. However, it has limitations in accurately capturing transparent, reflective, and low-texture surfaces, which can hinder forensic investigations. Neural Radiance Fields (NeRFs), a recently developed method, offer a potential solution by creating more accurate and detailed 3D models in these challenging contexts. This study aims to evaluate whether NeRFs can serve as effective alternatives to structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry for recording forensic autopsies. Materials and Methods Photogrammetric scans were performed on a variety of forensic subjects, including a cadaver with skin discoloration and epidermal exfoliation, a metal trashcan, a vehicle, and a mock crime scene. The scans were processed using traditional photogrammetry software (Meshroom) and compared with NeRF-based visualizations generate using instant neural graphics primitives. Results NeRF-based models provided more lifelike and detailed visualizations than photogrammetry, particularly when documenting transparent, reflective, or featureless surfaces. NeRF demonstrated superior capability in capturing complex details that photogrammetry struggled with. Conclusion NeRF technology shows considerable promise for improving the documentation of forensic autopsies, offering enhanced visual fidelity for challenging surfaces such as transparent or reflective materials. While the method presents challenges related to editing, software compatibility, and high computational demands, its potential benefits in forensic investigations are evident and merit further exploration.

Introduction: Forensic routine postmortem imaging in excess of photography and conventional X-ray has been pushed since a few years, in some instances under the name ”Virtopsy”. It constitutes a pivotal innovation in forensic medicine as it allows for the non-invasive exploration of the deceased through diverse imaging techniques. This study offers an analysis of a survey with focus on the worldwide adoption and application of postmortem imaging. Our goal is to uncover and understand regional variances in its deployment application. Methods: A survey comprising 18 questions, both closed-ended and open-ended, was designed collaboratively and distributed globally via email and social network. The survey addressed topics such as autopsy rates, imaging modalities, indications for postmortem imaging, personnel involved, evaluation methods, and communication of findings. The survey was initially sent to institutes with published postmortem imaging research, and later, it was distributed through international forensic radiology and radiographer associations. Statistical analysis was conducted to interpret the results. Results: Responses were obtained from 29 countries, representing 6 continents, with a total of 100 participating institutions. European institutions were predominant (69%), followed by Australia (9), North America (8), Asia (7), Africa (6) and South America (1). The majority of institutions reported 100-500 autopsies annually (31). Among the institutes that reported that they perform post mortem imaging (PMI), most listed postmortem computed tomography (PMCT) as modality (89%). The request to perform PMI was issued by institutes of forensic medicine (51%), researchers (42%), police (43%) or public prosecutor’s office (54%). 48% of the respondents stated that an autopsy must always be performed, even if the cause and manner of death can be ascertained by postmortem imaging. radiographers were primarily responsible for technically performing PMCT (65%) whereas physicians were listed in 28%, autopsy technicians in 18%. The majority of the institutions (32%) identified clinical radiologists as the primary individuals responsible for reading, evaluating radiological images, and writing reports. Many respondents (64%) reported that their image readers had attended specialized postmortem imaging courses. Communication of findings typically involved written reports (28%) or a combination of written reports and illustrated images (31%). Membership of survey respondents was indicated in 38% for the International Society of Forensic Radiology and Imaging (ISFRI) and 5% for the International Association of Forensic Radiographers (IAFR). The question was how many of the responders are members of a PMI focused radiological society or work group. 52% (44 out of 85) respondents indicated they were not a member of a postmortem imaging society. The memberships listed are ISFRI (38%), IAFR (5%) and AGFB (Arbeitsgruppe Forensische Bildgebung, 4%). Conclusion: This study provides a global perspective on the utilization of postmortem imaging in forensic medicine, revealing regional variations in practices and technology adoption. It offers insights into the personnel, techniques, and procedures involved in this field in different countries.

The rate of parental consent for fetal and perinatal autopsy is decreasing, whereas parents are more likely to agree to virtual autopsy by non-invasive imaging methods. Fetal and perinatal virtual autopsy needs high-resolution and good soft-tissue contrast for investigation of the cause of death and underlying trauma or pathology in fetuses and stillborn infants. This is offered by micro-computed tomography (CT), as opposed to the limited resolution provided by clinical CT scanners, and this is one of the most promising tools for non-invasive perinatal postmortem imaging. We developed and optimized a micro-CT scanner with a dual-energy imaging option. It is dedicated to post-mortem CT angiography and virtual autopsy of fetuses and stillborn infants in that the chamber can be cooled down to around 5 °C; this increases tissue rigidity and slows decomposition of the native specimen. This, together with the dedicated gantry-based architecture, attempts to reduce potential motion artifacts. The developed methodology is based on prior endovascular injection of a BaSO4-based contrast agent. We explain the design choices and considerations for this scanner prototype. We give details of the treatment of the optimization of the dual-energy and virtual mono-energetic imaging option that has been based on minimizing noise propagation and maximizing the contrast-to-noise ratio for vascular features. We demonstrate the scanner capabilities with proof-of-concept experiments on phantoms and stillborn piglets.

The significance of vitreous hemorrhages detected after death, particularly in non-traumatic cases, currently seems largely unclear. This obscurity might arise partly because these hemorrhages may go undetected, especially when relying solely on traditional methods like external inspection and autopsy. In this case of an 80-year-old woman with a history of arterial hypertension, post mortem computed tomography (PMCT) showed intrabulbar findings indicative of a lateral vitreous haemorrhage of the left eye, which then appeared partly dark on susceptibility weighted post mortem magnetic resonance imaging (PMMRI). PMMRI also identified a dislocated membrane suggestive of retina detachment. Dissection of the enucleated eye revealed a dark red gel-like mass, visually identified as clotted blood, and a retinal tear. The finding is discussed as possible consequence of arterial hypertension. Further investigations into the significance of post-mortem vitreous hemorrhages on imaging are warranted, especially in the context of potential early indicators of acute stroke.

Conventional 3D rendering methods of computed tomography (CT) as well as post-mortem data CT (PMCT) sometimes do not seem to be authentic enough, especially for relatively thin bones. This can be a problem when imaging intact anatomy and considering fractures of the facial or temporal bones, where defects or holes may be visualized instead of thin bone structures. The technical aspect of this is that all currently used visualization methods (volume rendering, cinematic rendering and particle tracing, shaded surfaces and iso-surfaces) are defined by a CT-density threshold, whereas the user at least implicitly expects the bone to have a certain min-imum density CT. However, some bone regions, typically those with relatively thin bone, do not meet these expectations, and lowering the threshold for visualization then results in all sorts of non-bone tissue being seen in the rendered images. To provide a more authentic PMCT visualization of bone, we identified a mixed data gradient model that improves the data from CT by increasing the CT density of low-density bone regions (but not of non-bone tissues). That delivers more satisfactory results for otherwise unmodified volume rendering. As pre-processing before 3D rendering, both hard and soft kernel data are used to obtain a 3D density map, a grayscale co-occurrence matrix is determined using a 3 x 3 x 3 kernel as the 3D gradient map, and these are then com-bined to obtain the final gradient model for mixed data.

The herniation of lungs into the deep neck space should be considered as a particular sign of possible crush injury or severe chest compression, particularly in presence of other injuries indicating that possibility such as multiple rib fractures. This report details a case of severe chest compression in a pedestrian by a heavily loaded truck. Generally, cervical lung herniation is relatively rare; most instances of lung herniation tend to be thoracic (not diaphragmatic or cervical).

Contemporary documentation of a car with bullet defects after a shooting incident can secure the usual tracks and gunshot residue, take photographs, and use trajectory rods and probes. Since the advent of the ”XXL-CT -Scanner” (Fraunhofer Institute, Germany), we have wondered if the advantages of volume scanning CT, already noted for forensic pathology, could be applied to cars. To this end, we damaged a small 3D-printed car model with an electric drill and added CT -dense material with a soldering iron, simulating linearly configured defect morphologies with metal particles. This model was CT -scanned and the resulting data visualized to illustrate how these visualizations can support reconstructive visualization of trajectories. Performing a real XXL-CT scan of a bullet-riddled car requires extensive preparation, transportation, and other logistical measures that are costly and time-consuming. Nonetheless, we suggest that this is a worthwhile research direction to explore.