This study reveals that the time-dependent hardening of dough is mainly driven by the cleavage and reformation of disulfide bonds. Tensile tests showed that dough treated with sodium metabisulfite (SMBS) had higher initial extensibility but hardened more severely over time compared to L-cysteine hydrochloride (L-CH). Concomitant with dough hardening over time, the decline in free thiols and two-stage oxidation kinetics confirmed disulfide reformation. Raman spectroscopy indicated the formation of more stable disulfide configuration (gauche-gauche-gauche) in glutenin. Polymerization of proteins larger than 80 kDa was promoted, and extractability of high-molecular-weight (HMW) and B/C-low-molecular-weight (LMW) glutenin subunits (GS) was reduced. Disulfide cleavage reduced glutenin alpha-helix, while reformation increased beta-sheet/alpha-helix in L-CH but decreased beta-sheet in SMBS systems. Fluorescence intensity decreased in glutenin. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) identified HMW-GS PW212 (Cys46, Cys31), Dx5 (Cys118), Dy10 (Cys636) and LMW-GS 1D1 (Cys25) as key participants in disulfide dynamics, revealing an irreversible reformation process that preferentially establishes new intermolecular rather than original intrachain bonds.

This study aimed to provide novel insights into how wheat flour post-ripening influences steamed bread quality by systematically uncovering the relationship between gluten aggregation and gas retention properties. The results indicated that wheat flour post-ripening endowed the dough with excellent viscoelasticity and resistance to stress deformation, effectively maintaining the gluten network's ability to encapsulate gas. The steamed bread made from post-ripened wheat flour was more upright (height-to-diameter ratio increased from 0.58 to 0.66), with a decreased average cell area and increased cell density, especially after post-ripening at 38 degrees C. Postripening improved the gas retention rate of the dough, increased the rupture time (from 18.68 min to 24.27 min), and enhanced the rupture volume (from 0.96 mL/g to 1.02 mL/g). Wheat flour post-ripening promoted gluten polymerization (increased glutenin macropolymer content and decreased free sulfhydryl content and SDSsoluble protein), which was mainly reflected in the changes of alpha-, gamma-gliadins, and B/C-LMW-GS subunits. The enhanced gas retention capacity was the primary factor contributing to the improvement in steamed bread quality, closely related to gluten aggregation behavior during the post-ripening of wheat flour.

Microbial spoilage and starch retrogradation remain major challenges in the baking industry. This study evaluated the antimicrobial and anti-staling effects of three chitosan oligosaccharides (COS) with different molecular weights (MWs), namely, low molecular weight (LMW, 1000 Da), medium molecular weight (MMW, 1509 Da), and high molecular weight (HMW, 2225 Da) in bread. In vitro assays showed that antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger and Penicillium chrysogenum increased with MW, whereas both LMW- and HMW-COS exhibited stronger antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis. Incorporation of COS notably prolonged the microbial shelf life of bread stored at 25 °C, extending it to 21, 15, and 24 d for LMW-, MMW-, and HMW-COS, respectively. The anti-staling effect of COS was also MW-dependent. Specifically, compared with the control, LMW-, MMW-, and HMW-COS reduced crumb firmness by 48.5%, 43.1%, and 29.8%, respectively, and decreased retrogradation enthalpy by 43.8%, 36.3%, and 20.7%, respectively, after 7 d of storage at 4 °C. Mechanistically, this effect is attributed to the reduction in starch relative crystallinity and the restriction of water migration from bound to free state. Overall, LMW-COS exhibited the greatest potential as a dual-functional improver, delivering superior anti-staling performance without compromising antimicrobial efficacy.

This study investigated the cryoprotective effect of fermented glutinous rice wine filtrate (FGF) on the quality of pre-fermented frozen dough steamed bread (PFSB) under repeated freeze-thaw (FT) cycles. FGF fermented for different durations exhibited typical thermal hysteresis activity (THA) and ice recrystallization inhibition (IRI) activity, among which FGF fermented for 12 h (FGF-12 h) showed the strongest antifreeze activity, with a THA of 1.24°C. FGF effectively suppressed the deterioration in PFSB quality during FT cycles. After 4 FT cycles, the specific volume of PFSB supplemented with FGF-12 h increased to 124.6% of the control, while its hardness decreased to 72.8% of the control. FGF also reduced water mobility, increased the proportion of bound water, and decreased the freezable water (Fw) content in frozen dough. The antifreeze activity of FGF, combined with its regulation of water distribution and mobility, inhibited ice crystal formation and recrystallization, thereby stabilizing gluten secondary structures and reducing disulfide bond cleavage and glutenin macropolymer depolymerization during FT cycles. Consistently, FGF suppressed FT-induced gluten depolymerization, as evidenced by the inhibited increase in SDS-extractable protein (SDS-EP) content, which remained at 94.9%-98.7% of the control in FGF-added samples after 4 FT cycles. Meanwhile, FGF mitigated structural damage to the dough matrix, significantly increased the storage (G’) and loss (G”) moduli, and suppressed the deterioration of the gluten network during FT cycles. These results highlight the promising potential of FGF as an effective, natural, and clean-label cryoprotective agent for improving the freeze-thaw stability of pre-fermented frozen dough.

Legume protein-based yogurts formulated without added fat or stabilizers typically exhibit poor gelation capacity and are prone to phase separation. To overcome this limitation and extend the applicability of pH-shifting in yogurt systems, a synergistic modification strategy for mung bean protein isolate (MBPI) was developed by integrating heat-alkali treatment (pH 10.5, 50 degrees C) with limited proteolysis using papain or bromelain. SDS-PAGE analysis showed that papain induced controlled hydrolysis while largely preserving the medium-molecular-weight protein fractions. Compared with native MBPI (solubility: 23.7 %), MBPI subjected to pH-shifting combined with papain treatment exhibited a pronounced increase in solubility (75.5 %) and formed gels with enhanced water-holding capacity (WHC, 78.6 %) and improved viscoelastic properties (G '/G ''). The combined treatment slightly reduced gel hardness due to particle size reduction, resulting in a finer gel structure suitable for yogurt products. LF-NMR analysis further confirmed a more restricted water distribution within the modified gels, indicating the formation of a stable and cohesive gel network. Overall, these findings demonstrate an effective approach for alleviating textural limitations in plant-based yogurts and support the development of high-quality, clean-label fermented products.

This study elucidated the roles of endogenous lipids and protein in dough and steamed bread quality during the post-ripening of newly harvested wheat flour. Over 60 days of post-ripening, the contents of total and non-polar free lipids decreased, whereas polar free lipids, along with endogenous lipids emulsifying activity and emulsion stability, exhibited a transient increase followed by a decline. Concurrently, free fatty acids and conjugated dienes accumulated continuously. Lipase and esterase exhibited greater stability than lipoxygenase during flour post-ripening. It was also observed that free sulfhydryl groups in protein significantly decreased (p < 0.05), while non-covalent protein interactions initially increased and subsequently decreased. During 0-5 days of post-ripening, high levels of non-polar free lipids were associated with low specific volume, high hardness, and crust-crumb separation in steamed bread. At 10-20 days of post-ripening, the increase in free polar lipids (GL and PhL) and the strengthening of the protein network contributed to a marked improvement in steamed bread quality, as reflected by increased in pore area rate and average cell area. As post-ripening progressed to 40-60 days, the presence of free lipids in flour influenced the extent of the decrease in free sulfhydryl groups, resulting in higher maximum creep strain and tan delta(peak) values in dough, thereby attenuating its resistance to stress deformation and thermal viscoelasticity properties. This study would provide valuable insights into strategies for accelerating the industrial utilization of flour produced from newly harvested wheat.

Alkaline fresh noodles possess a unique texture, while their shelf-life remains relatively short. Therefore, this study aimed to extend shelf life and modulate its quality through the incorporation of 0 similar to 2% propylene glycol. As the quantity increased, the shelf-life of alkaline fresh noodles refrigerated at 4 degrees C was prolonged by about 10-40 days, with total plate count (TPC) and mold and yeast count (MYC) showing slower growth rates. Similarly, decreases in Penicillium chrysogenum spore germination (from 92.33% to 18.70%) and Bacillus subtilis OD600 values (from 0.797 to 0.600; optical density at 600 nm) further indicate that microbial growth was inhibited. Moreover, the addition of propylene glycol reduced moisture loss, indicating increased storage stability. Regarding quality, moderate propylene glycol addition (0.15 similar to 1.5%) enhanced elasticity and extensibility, whereas confocal laser scanning microscope showed gluten-network disruption at 2%. Overall, propylene glycol extended the shelf-life of alkaline fresh noodles while maintaining quality.

With the rising consumer health awareness and demand for convenient, high-quality foods, the wheat-based noodle industry is transforming from traditional processing to a quality and brand-oriented model. Noodle texture, especially elasticity and hardness, hinges on the proper construction and reinforcement of the gluten protein network. However, current production still relies heavily on empirical practices, with a lack of comprehensive scientific understanding of gluten network construction and reinforcement. This review systematically analyzes key noodle production stages (ingredient preparation, mixing, resting, sheeting, drying, cooking), elucidating the multiscale dynamic construction and reinforcement mechanisms of the gluten network by focusing on core physicochemical changes (protein cross-linking, water-protein interaction, mechanical regulation). It summarizes industrial processing methods and technical points, clarifying the synergistic effects of raw material properties (flour protein, starch, granule size), exogenous additives (exogenous proteins, inorganic salts, enzymes, hydrocolloids) and processing parameters on gluten network structure and functionality. Aiming to reveal the core link between gluten network structure and noodle texture, this review establishes a scientific framework for the directional regulation of the gluten network, providing a basis for enterprises to customize production lines, improve efficiency and processing adaptability. It also proposes future research directions from microscopic mechanism analysis, green processing technology development, and data-driven process optimization to advance the high-quality development of the wheat-based noodle industry.

Semi-dried noodles are susceptible to microbial spoilage during storage, and conventional preservation methods often rely on chemical additives. This study evaluated sourdough fermentation as a natural strategy to extend shelf-life and improve quality in semi-dried noodles. Two sourdoughs, Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (LP) and LV1, were incorporated at different levels and their effects on microbial stability, water migration, and cooking properties were investigated. Microbial analysis showed that adding 15% LP or LV1 sourdough extended the shelf-life of semi-dried noodles from 6 days to 24 or 27 days, respectively. Physicochemical properties indicated that sourdough fermentation produced lactic and acetic acids, which decreased pH and water activity (aw), thereby inhibiting microbial growth during storage. Low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) analysis revealed that sourdough fermentation shortened the transverse relaxation time (T2), indicating reduced water mobility that contributed to shelf-life extension. In addition, the incorporation of sourdough enhanced the viscoelastic properties of semi-dried noodle dough and improved its gas production and retention capacity. The 15% sourdough addition significantly shortened the optimal cooking time (OCT) by accelerating moisture migration during cooking and reducing cooking loss. Texture and tensile analysis demonstrated that moderate sourdough levels produced a softer and more elastic noodle texture, while confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) showed that moderate fermentation effectively improved the microstructure of the gluten network. These results indicate that sourdough fermentation provides an effective clean-label approach for producing high-quality semi-dried noodles with extended shelf-life.

In order to delay textural deterioration during soaking, ready-to-eat cooked noodles were prepared from wheat flour obtained from accelerated post-ripened grains. Changes in the textural properties, water status and migration, and protein network were determined. After wheat grains tempered with glucose oxidase (GOD) solution, firmness and elasticity of immersed noodles were improved by 40.82% and 73.50%, respectively. Meanwhile, various treatments significantly (p < 0.05) decreased the sodium dodecyl sulfate extractable proteins content by promoting protein cross-linking. Furthermore, more compact gluten network and slower water intrusion were observed in GOD, transglutaminase, and O3 groups. And GOD group exhibited the tightest protein network and lowest water absorption during immersion. This indicated that the enhanced protein polymerization restricted water migration and textural deterioration. Therefore, GOD tempering-induced accelerated post-ripening of wheat grains represents an innovative approach to improving the cooked noodles' soak resistance by strengthening the initial protein network.

Lamian dough extensibility is vital to the expansion of chain foodservice but is highly unstable during present processing. Large-deformation rheology was used to assess the effects of L-cysteine hydrochloride (L-CH) and resting time on extensibility of Lamian dough. At 0 min, increasing L-CH (0, 0.015%, 0.0225%, 0.030%, 0.045%) initially enhanced extension distance, peaking at 64 mm with 0.0225%L-CH, before decreasing. From 30 to 90 min, extension distance showed an upward trend, while maximum tensile resistance (Rmax) decreased and degree of relaxation (R) increased. Prolonged resting time (0-90 min) reduced extension distance and R while increasing Rmax; however, a slight increase in extension distance was observed in dough with 0%L-CH. Mechanistically, L-CH addition elevated free sulfhydryl content, driving the depolymerization of glutenin macropolymers (GMP) in a dose-dependent manner, leading to increased medium glutenin polymers and monomers percentage. CLSM confirmed the changes in network structure, showing moderate crosslinking and intensity in the stretch direction at 0.0225%L-CH-0 min. During resting time, protein disentanglement led to a slight increase in extensibility at 0%L-CH; low L-CH addition reconstituted rigid GMP through oxidating -SH, and higher levels induced disulfide and noncovalent network rearrangement, ultimately reducing extension distance. By defining how L-CH and resting time effect gluten protein behavior, this work offers a theoretic foundation for development of pre-made Lamian.

This study investigated the effects of three mill streams (representing distinct parts of wheat grain) and straight run flour (a blend of mill streams) on dough characteristics and steamed bread quality during post-ripening. Throughout the post-ripening period, the mill streams (2M) from the wheat endosperm exhibited a more stable dough stabilization time, while the bran-rich mill streams (2S and 2B) displayed a downward trend. In addition, when mill streams were post-ripened for 20 days, the viscoelasticity and gas retention of dough were enhanced, and internal crumb structure in steamed bread was improved. After mill streams post-ripening, the increase in glutenin macropolymer content promoted formation of a dense and elastic gluten network structure in dough. The results demonstrated that post-ripening promoted protein aggregation of wheat flour mill streams. Among them, 2M streams (the second reduction) showed the slightest changes in protein properties, 2S streams (the second sizing) and 2B streams (the second break) exhibited a significant decline in free sulfhydryl content and gliadin content, and an increase in glutenin content. More pronounced changes in gelatinization properties and peroxidase activity were observed in the 2S and 2B streams. Principal component analysis indicated that the gluten network formation promoted by mill streams post-ripening contributed more obvious to improved quality of steamed bread dough. These results proved the differences in mill streams post-ripening and provided a valuable theoretical basis for improving steamed bread dough with specific mill streams during post-ripening.

This study investigated the effects of fermented glutinous rice wine filtrate (FGF) and its fractions (supernatant, FGF-S; lees, FGF-L) on the quality of frozen dough steamed bread (FDSB), and explored the underlying mechanisms in enhancing dough's gas retention capacity during steaming process. FGF and FGF-S significantly increased the specific volume, lightness, and gas cell ratio, and significantly reduced hardness of FDSB. FGF-L, rich in microorganisms but lacking key metabolites, failed to significantly improve the quality of FDSB compared with the control group. FGF and FGF-S significantly increased elevated dough volume and gas hold ratio of dough after 14 days of frozen storage. Dynamic thermo-mechanical analysis showed that FGF-S significantly increased T-onset and T-peak of dough, indicating effective delay in starch gelatinization and gas cell rupture. According to the results of protein extractability in SDS and subunits distribution, FGF-S inhibited the release of gliadin from gluten protein and depolymerization of high molecular weight glutenin subunits to low molecular weight glutenin subunits during frozen storage. Meanwhile, FGF-S enhanced gluten polymerization and gas retention during the initial stage (<65 degrees C) of steaming while preventing formation of overly dense gluten network at the later stage (>= 90 degrees C). Results of reverse-phase-HPLC at different temperatures confirmed that FGF-S inhibited thermally induced cross-linking between gliadin and glutenin subunits at temperatures exceeding 90 degrees C. Moreover, FGF-S delayed thermal transition and pasting of starch, reduced pasting viscosities, and facilitated diffusion and expansion of gas cells. As a clean label ingredient, FGF holds strong potential for use in frozen dough.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), a class I carcinogen, infects 50-80% of the global population. Anti-adhesive therapies are emerging as promising alternatives to antibiotics for controlling bacterial infections. In this study, ovomucin hydrolysates were shown to effectively prevent H. pylori adhesion to gastric epithelial cells (GES-1 cells). Hydrolysates produced using Protease N exhibited the strongest inhibitory effect, reaching 44.8 +/- 0.6% inhibition at 10 mg/mL, with a minimum antiadhesive concentration (MAC) of 0.31 mg/mL. This anti-adhesive activity is primarily attributed to glycopeptides that function as receptor analogs, binding to H. pylori. Sixteen alpha-ovomucin-derived peptides with potential H. pylori-binding activity were identified. Eleven permethylated glycans were characterized, all sharing a conserved pentasaccharide core of GlcNAc2Man3, with terminal residues including mannose, galactose, N-acetylgalactosamine, N-acetylhexosamine, and N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac). Notably, only one N-glycan, Hex5HexNAc4NeuAc2 (m/z 2792.8), contained terminal Neu5Ac, which plays a key role in mediating H. pylori binding via sialic acid-binding adhesin (SabA) and contributes to the inhibition of bacterial adhesion to GES-1 cells. This study provides evidence supporting the potential of ovomucin hydrolysates as functional food ingredients to prevent H. pylori infection.

Kaempferol, a plant flavonoid with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-allergenic bioactivities, has limited use in functional foods due to its bitterness and low bioavailability. This study compared two zein-based modification strategies, insertion and coating, for kaempferol-loaded liposomes in terms of bitterness masking, stability, and bioaccessibility. At 0.2 mg/mL zein, insertion showed 4.67% higher encapsulation efficiency than coating. (P < 0.05). E-tongue analysis showed coating reduced bitterness more effectively than insertion. Raman spectroscopy revealed coating involved electrostatic interactions, while insertion involved hydrophobic ones. Fluorescence probing indicated insertion expanded liposome internal space, whereas coating resulted in a compact structure. TG and DSC analyses confirmed coating provided greater thermal stability. Additionally, coated liposomes exhibited superior environmental stability, antioxidant activity, and bioaccessibility. In vitro tests showed zein-coated liposomes released 62.98 ± 1.35% kaempferol, while zein-inserted liposomes released 50.32 ± 0.59%. These findings offer new insights for integrating bitter bioactives into functional foods.

This study systematically investigated the effects of egg components (egg white and egg yolk) on the freeze-thaw stability of frozen raw noodles and elucidated the underlying mechanisms in terms of water state, protein aggregation behavior, and conformational changes. Both egg white and egg yolk were found to significantly enhance the cooking quality (p < 0.05). Egg white exhibited a more pronounced effect on textural and tensile properties, whereas egg yolk was more effective in reducing cooking loss. The presence of egg white promoted gluten network stabilization through disulfide and hydrogen bond formation, leading to enhanced structural compactness as well as restrained freezable water content and water mobility during freeze-thaw cycles. Egg yolk mainly contributed to reinforcing the gluten network against ice crystal-induced stress through disulfide bonds and hydrogen bonds formed at the later stage of freeze-thaw treatment. The α-helix content was higher in egg white, whereas the β-sheet content was higher in egg yolk. SDS-PAGE analysis indicated that both egg white and egg yolk promoted gluten aggregation after heat treatment compared with the control group. These findings demonstrate that egg white and egg yolk improve the freeze-thaw stability and quality of frozen raw noodles, providing theoretical and practical guidance for their application in the industrial production of high-quality frozen noodle products.

This study investigated the sensorial, rheological, and microstructural properties of whole grain highland barley slurry after undergoing thermal turbulence pretreatment. Results demonstrated that pretreatment markedly improved the palatability, increased the smoothness, and decreased the friction coefficient of slurry. Pearson's correlation analysis revealed that increases in soluble solids and soluble β-glucan content were associated with improved sensory quality. Moreover, the particle size and turbiscan stability index (up to 0.36) decreased with pretreatment, and the viscosity rose from 0.35 to 3.59 Pa·s, indicating that pretreatment promoted micronization and stability. Microstructural analysis showed that thermal pretreatment disrupted the grains' cell walls, resulting in a uniformly dispersed and interwoven network within the slurry that inhibited the sedimentation of its fibrous components. These findings provide valuable insights into improving the quality of slurry using thermal turbulence pretreatment and highlight its potential for developing related whole grain products.

This study elucidated the influence mechanism of gluten protein restructuring on the cracking behavior of dumpling wrappers during freeze-thaw cycles (FT). The results showed that as the glutenin-to-gliadin (Glu/Gli) ratio decreased, the cracking rate of frozen dumplings first decreased and then increased. The Glu/Gli-5/6 exhibited the lowest cracking rate (66.67%) after 4 FT. Compared to Glu/Gli-1/2, this ratio modulated the disulfide bond, hydrogen bond, and hydrophobic interactions from 7.86 mu mol/g, 12.65 mg/g, and 22.16 mg/g to 8.19 mu mol/g, 17.02 mg/g, and 24.56 mg/g, respectively. This resulted in a gluten network with strong water-holding capacity. Molecular docking results further revealed that the interactions between glutenin and gliadin were primarily mediated by glutamine, serine, tyrosine, glycine, and proline residues. This coordinated evolution of intermolecular forces drove the protein secondary structure toward higher beta-sheet (53.65%) and alpha-helix (18.86%) content, promoting the transformation of the gluten network morphology from porous and loose (Glu/Gli-1/2) or locally dense but globally heterogeneous (Glu/Gli-2/1) to a dense and uniform structure. Moreover, Glu/Gli-5/6 delayed ice crystal nucleation, promoting the formation of fine and uniformly distributed ice crystals. Meanwhile, the endothermic enthalpy increase was merely 0.22% after 4 FT, substantially lower than that of Glu/Gli-1/2 (7.93%). It also imparted suitable rheological properties to the dough to dissipate freezing stress. This study provides a theoretical basis for enhancing the crack resistance of frozen dumplings through the rational design of gluten protein.

This study investigated the influence mechanism of gluten protein characteristics on the cracking behavior of dumpling wrappers (DWs) during freeze-thaw (FT) cycles. The results demonstrated that FT cycles increased freezable water content, water loss, and cracking rates. Five wheat flour varieties showed variation in cracking rates. DWs with the lowest cracking rate exhibited optimal moisture status. Gluten protein and rheological analysis illustrated that wheat flours with higher proportions of SDS-soluble polymers and monomeric proteins exhibited superior tensile resistance, whereas those with elevated SDS-insoluble protein content showed enhanced shear resistance. The lower gliadin/glutenin ratio in wheat flours contributes to enhanced deformation resistance. Microstructural observations indicated that low-cracking DWs exhibited better integrity than high-cracking counterparts. This study demonstrated that variations in gluten protein characteristics (gliadin/glutenin ratio and molecular weight distribution) mediate FT-induced cracking by influencing water variation and rheological behavior. These findings provide theoretical guidance for developing crack-resistant wheat flour of DWs.