Background The maximal lactate steady state (MLSS), a physiological state corresponding to the highest workload maintainable over time without continual blood lactate accumulation, is widely used to assess endurance performance and formulate training programs. However, currently accepted values for MLSS are based on non-disabled individuals and may be unsuitable for wheelchair racers. This study measured the blood lactate concentration (BLC) at MLSS and the corresponding load for class T53/54 wheelchair racers. Additionally, the validity of using a fixed BLC for calculating the workload at MLSS was assessed. Methods Nine elite T53/54 wheelchair racers (23.7 ± 4.8 years, 59.4 ± 8.6 kg, training time 4.4 ± 2.7 years) were included in a 1,500-m simulation test, a six-level incremental test, and two to five 30-min submaximal constant load tests on an out door standard 400-m track. Earlobe BLC, heart rate, and velocity were measured. MLSS represented the highest BLC with an increase of ≤ 1.0 mM during the final 20 min of the constant load tests. Results The BLC at MLSS was 5.3 ± 1.1 mM. The speed measured at MLSS was significantly higher than that measured during the incremental test at BLC = 4 mM (P < 0.05), but similar to that at 5.3 mM. The rating of perceived exertion at MLSS was 12.9 ± 1.1, and the velocity at MLSS was 80.6 ± 2.5% of the maximum workload corresponding to the incremental test. Conclusions A BLC of 5.3 mM is a more accurate ‘group’ estimate for wheelchair racers than the four mM threshold identified in non-disabled individuals. Furthermore, this intensity corresponds to approximately 80.6% of maximal workload and a rating of perceived exertion (RPE) of 13, providing a multi-faceted, sport-specific method for prescribing training.

BACKGROUND:Drawing on Darling and Steinberg's integrative model of parenting, this study investigated the influence of parental support (companionship and modelling) on the physical activity levels of children with intellectual disabilities, with a specific focus on the moderating role of different parenting styles. METHODS:A cross-sectional survey was conducted using a convenience sample of 191 parents of children with ID in China. Data were collected via parental support scales, the short form of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ-S) and a parenting style questionnaire. Hierarchical regression analysis was employed to test the main effects of parental support, and the PROCESS macro (Model 1) with the bootstrap method was used to examine the moderating effects of parenting styles. RESULTS:Both parental companionship (B = 865.62, p < 0.001) and parental modelling (B = 829.79, p < 0.001) were significant positive predictors of children's physical activity levels. Moderating effect analyses revealed that a democratic parenting style significantly enhanced the positive effects of parental support. In contrast, an inconsistent parenting style significantly weakened the positive effect of parental modelling (Coeff = -579.22, p = 0.007). The interaction with parental companionship showed a similar negative trend but was marginally significant (p = 0.057), indicating a need for further verification. Other nondemocratic parenting styles (authoritarian, permissive and indulgent) showed no significant moderating effects. CONCLUSIONS:Parental support is a key predictor of physical activity in children with intellectual disabilities, but its effectiveness is significantly moderated by the family's parenting context. A democratic parenting style acts as a 'catalyst', optimizing the impact of supportive behaviours, whereas an inconsistent parenting style acts as an 'inhibitor', particularly weakening the effectiveness of role modelling. The findings suggest that health promotion interventions for this population should adopt a dual-focused strategy: guiding parents to provide specific support behaviours while simultaneously fostering a democratic and consistent parenting climate.

PURPOSE:We aimed to identify heterogeneous emotional and behavioral patterns in children and adolescents with intellectual developmental disorder (intellectual disability) (ID) and to determine how these profiles are associated with different parenting styles. METHODS:Latent profile analysis was used to identify children's emotional and behavioral risk trajectories. One-way ANOVA assessed differences in parenting styles across the resulting behavioral risk profiles. Multinomial logistic regression investigated the associations of parenting styles with child profile membership. RESULTS:Analyses of 204 children and adolescents with ID (mean age 13.08 ± 3.17 years) identified three behavioral risk trajectories: (1) low externalizing, high prosocial group /low risk (14.21 %), showing minimal externalizing issues and strong prosocial behaviors; (2) hyperactivity-prominent/moderate risk (64.22 %), indicating pronounced hyperactivity and moderate externalizing problems; and (3) high externalizing/high risk (21.57 %), demonstrating elevated emotional and conduct problems with low prosocial behavior. One-way ANOVA showed significant between-group effects for indulgent (F (2, 201) = 13.46, ηp2 = 0.117, p < 0.01), democratic (F (2, 201) = 30.76, ηp2 = 0.234, p < 0.01), permissive (F (2, 201) = 4.42, ηp2 = 0.042, p = 0.013), and inconsistent parenting styles (F (2, 201) = 12.90, ηp2 = 0.115, p < 0.01). Multinomial logistic regression indicated that the democratic parenting style was positively associated with higher likelihood of child membership in the low externalizing, high prosocial group (OR = 1.317 [95 % CI, 1.186-1.463], p < 0.001) or the hyperactivity-prominent group (OR = 1.208 [95 % CI, 1.121-1.302], p < 0.001). The indulgent parenting style was negatively associated with the low externalizing group (OR = 0.829 [95 % CI, 0.703-0.978], p = 0.026). CONCLUSION:Findings suggest that democratic parenting style may be the most effective approach to support positive emotional and behavioral adjustment in children and adolescents with ID.

While fundamental movement skills (FMS) and physical fitness are critical for children with intellectual disabilities, their multidimensional interactions remain poorly characterized. This study aimed to elucidate the structural associations between FMS (locomotor and object control skills) and physical fitness in children with intellectual disabilities using canonical correlation analysis (CCA). Method: A cross-sectional design included 207 children with intellectual disabilities (aged 6–18 years, mean age=13.13±3.14). Thirteen FMS were assessed via the TGMD-3 tool, and seven physical fitness indicators (e.g., 50m sprint, standing long jump, TUG test) were measured. Statistical analyses, including CCA and regression modeling, were conducted using SPSS 27.0. The study found that the first pair of canonical correlation coefficients between the two sets of variables reached 0.829 (p < 0.001), indicating a significant positive correlation between motor skills and physical fitness. The canonical structure analysis revealed that the core associated factors of physical fitness were lower limb explosive power (Standing long jump, r = 0.951), speed quality (50m sprint, r = 0.891), and balance (TUG, r = -0.604). These main physical fitness factors were significantly related to multi-dimensional motor skills, among which lateral shuffle (0.773), single-foot hop (0.863), kicking a stationary ball (0.784), and stationary dribbling (0.733). Redundancy analysis indicated that the typical variable V1 could explain 50.1% of the total variance of physical fitness and 34.5% of the variation in motor skills. Regression analysis further confirmed that lower limb explosive power (R ² = 0.578) and speed quality (R ² = 0.525) had the strongest predictive effect on the variation of motor skills, while flexibility (sit-and-reach test) had no significant impact (R ² = 0.001). The study identified a bidirectional reinforcement mechanism between power-speed capacities and object control proficiency, with coordination deficits reflected in TUG performance potentially limiting dynamic balance development. These findings underscore the necessity of integrating lower-limb strength training (e.g., plyometrics) and task-specific skill interventions (e.g., ball control drills) to enhance motor performance in children with intellectual disabilities. The results provide a theoretical foundation for designing precision rehabilitation programs that synergistically target physical fitness and FMS development.

Background The development of fundamental motor skills (FMS) and changes in body composition among children and adolescents with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) are an emerging public health issue. Physical activity serves as a dual protective mechanism, enhancing motor skills and optimizing body composition. Yet no systematic reviews have been published examining the effects of structured exercise programs on both FMS progression and weight management in this population. Methods Web of Science, PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Medline databases were searched for peer-reviewed English-language literature, from the establishment of the database to October 1, 2025. Risk of bias was assessed using a modified Cochrane Collaboration’s tool and PEDro scale. The inclusion criteria comprised randomized or controlled trial that reported on FMS or body composition in children and adolescents (4–18 years) with IDD. Subgroup analyses were performed according to the type of physical activity. Results Thirty-three studies (n = 5,245, average age ranging from 4 to 18 years) were included. Physical activity significantly improved FMS (standard mean difference (SMD) = 1.21, 95% CI [0.85–1.57], p < 0.001). Subgroup analyses showed significant improvements in locomotor skills (SMD = 1.13, 95% CI [0.83–1.42], p < 0.001) and object control skills (SMD = 0.87, 95% CI [0.57–1.17], p < 0.001). Among physical activity types, virtual reality (VR) games (SMD = 1.00, 95% CI [0.60–1.40], p < 0.001), motor skills (SMD = 1.79, 95% CI [1.11–2.47], p < 0.001), and sport-specific programs (SMD = 1.13, 95% CI [0.57–1.70], p < 0.001) improved the FMS. In terms of body composition, moderate intensity continuous training (MICT) significantly reduced body mass index (SMD = −0.29, 95% CI [−0.50 to −0.08], p = 0.006) and body fat percentage (SMD = −0.55, 95% CI [−1.01 to −0.09], p = 0.020). In contrast, the reduction in waist circumference was not significant (SMD = −0.32, 95% CI [−0.69 to 0.04], p = 0.080). Conclusion Our findings identify interventions focused on motor skills and MICT as effective strategies for improving FMS and body composition in this population, which may lay a foundation for their long-term health. In contrast, VR games have limited empirical support based on our assessment of the evidence quality.

Abstract Background Clinical guidelines and practice increasingly endorse physical activity interventions for individuals with neurodevelopmental disorders. However, because monitoring and reporting of potential intervention-related harms are often incomplete, the current evidence base regarding safety remains limited. Methods A systematic search of PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, the Cochrane Library, and EBSCO was conducted on November 11, 2025, followed by three rounds of supplementary snowball searching completed on November 20, 2025. Eligible studies were randomized controlled trials of physical activity interventions in populations with neurodevelopmental disorders. Following prespecified procedures recommended by the CONSORT-Harms extension and the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions, we characterized adverse event monitoring and reporting practices across studies, summarized reasons for participant withdrawal, and considered the potential safety signals these reasons might indicate. Random-effects meta-analyses estimated the relative risk of adverse events for physical activity interventions versus non-exercise controls, and potential moderators were examined via subgroup and meta-regression analyses. Results Among the 41,852 deduplicated records, 309 randomized controlled trials were included, comprising 322 study arms and 13,228 participants with neurodevelopmental disorders. None of the included trials fully complied with CONSORT-Harms recommendations for systematic harm monitoring and reporting. Only 58 trials described adverse event monitoring, mostly using passive, non-prespecified procedures; among those reporting results, approximately one quarter reported at least one adverse event or adverse effect, most commonly intervention-induced delayed-onset muscle soreness, mild pain or irritation, and related psychological discomfort. Among the 201 studies that reported reasons for participant withdrawal, 38 statements were too vague to determine the event characteristics. Sixteen studies reported adverse events (e.g., health problems and emotional discomfort); however, because none used a systematic adjudication procedure, attributing these events to the intervention was difficult. Forty-five studies met the inclusion criteria for meta-analysis. The pooled analysis indicated that physical activity interventions did not significantly increase the risk of reported adverse events (RR = 1.14; 95% CI 0.67–1.94). However, trials with prespecified monitoring procedures had a significantly higher risk estimate (RR = 4.32, 95% CI 1.36–13.68). Conclusions Existing reported results suggest that these interventions do not significantly increase the overall risk of adverse events. However, the strength of this conclusion is limited by widespread systematic underreporting in the original studies and by substantial heterogeneity in methods used to monitor, identify, and assess harms. In contrast, studies that implemented prespecified adverse event monitoring procedures were generally able to identify and report adverse events more comprehensively, rather than indicating that these trials carry a genuinely higher risk. Future research should establish and implement standardized procedures for adverse event monitoring and reporting, standardize procedures for adjudicating and attributing reasons for withdrawal, and systematically report key variables related to intervention implementation and descriptive adverse event data to strengthen the credibility of benefit–risk assessments of physical activity interventions in this population.

Objective and settingThis study aims to explore the effects of exercise intervention on the physical and mental rehabilitation of children with ASD, and provide a reference for expanding behavioral intervention methods for autism.DesignThis study used two children with autism, Case B and Case D, as research subjects. According to the physical and mental characteristics of children with ASD, a 16-week, three-stage rehabilitation program was designed and implemented. During the training period, measurement methods such as ActiGraph GT3X+, Health Related Physical Fitness (HRPF), Test of Gross Motor Development 3 (TGMD-3), and ABC Behavior Observation Scale were used to evaluate the effects of rehabilitation training at each stage.ResultsAfter completing the targeted intervention, the physical acvtivity of the two children were decreased sedentary behavior (Mchange=290.07 d/min, 218.16 d/min), the increased moderate/high-intensity physical activity (Mchange=135.05 d/min, 36.45 d/min), In terms of healthy physical fitness level, the body mass index (BMI) of the the children with ASD was decreased (Mchange = 0.7, 4.92), together with the increased grip strength (Mchange=1.8, 4.2) and forward bending in the new sitting position (Mchange=4.3, 5.6). In terms of fundamental motor skills, the total score of the children with ASD was increased (Mchange=4, 10), especially the object control skill score (Mchange=4, 7). In terms of the physical behavior, the frequency and duration of stereotyped behaviors of the two children were decreased. In addition, the positive communication times of the two children were also increased (Mchange=14, 12).ConclusionThe 16-week exercise intervention improved the physical activity and health fitness levels of the autistic children to some extent, and meanwhile, the two children also showed some improvement in their behavior. They suggest that individualized exercise may warrant further investigation as a supportive component of educational rehabilitation, but causality and generalizability cannot be established without larger controlled studies and long-term follow-up.

BACKGROUND:Difficulties in gross and fine motor skills negatively affect the healthy development of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), yet evidence for physical activity interventions (PAIs) remains limited and inconsistent. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the differential effects of PAIs on gross and fine motor difficulties in children with ASD and to explore potential moderators. METHODS:Following PRISMA guidelines, empirical studies published from inception to April 21, 2026 were systematically searched across PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, the Cochrane Library, and SPORTDiscus. Effect sizes were synthesized using a three-level random-effects model and were expressed as Hedges' g (g). Moderator effects were examined using subgroup and meta-regression analyses. RESULTS:Forty-four studies (1311 children aged 2-16 years) were included. PAIs significantly improved gross motor skills (g = 0.87, I² = 66.3%), with significant effects observed for locomotor (g = 0.92), manipulation (g = 0.83), balance (g = 0.80), and coordination (g = 0.52). Improvements in fine motor skills were not significant (g = 0.26, I² = 63.9%), including manual dexterity (g = 0.44) and fine motor integration (g = 0.09). Organized form, intervention setting and providers significantly moderated effects on overall and gross motor skills (p < 0.05). Group-based interventions delivered by educators or coaches in inclusive settings showed greater effects. Meta-regression revealed a positive association between improvements in locomotor and total sessions (β = 0.017, p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS:PAIs improve gross motor skills and related outcomes in children with ASD. Group-based interventions delivered by educators or coaches in inclusive settings may be particularly effective. Further rigorous studies are needed to clarify effects on fine motor skills and determine the optimal intervention dose.

Purpose This study examined associations between motor competence and adaptive behavior and evaluated the discriminative utility of TGMD-2 scores for identifying low adaptive functioning. Methods In this cross-sectional study, 227 children with severe ID (6–12 years) were recruited from six social welfare institutions in China. Motor competence was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development–Second Edition (TGMD-2; total score, locomotor skills, and object control skills). Adaptive behavior was assessed using the Adaptive Behavior Questionnaire for Children (ABQC), yielding an Adaptive Deviation Quotient (ADQ) and domain scores (independence, cognition, socialization); low adaptive functioning was defined as ADQ < 70. Pearson correlations and multiple linear regressions were conducted, and ROC analysis evaluated TGMD-2 total score discrimination. Results TGMD-2 total score correlated strongly with ADQ (r = 0.813, p < 0.001), with moderate-to-strong associations for independence (r = 0.536) and socialization (r = 0.655), and a weaker association for cognition (r = 0.292) (all p < 0.001). In regression models, TGMD-2 total score explained substantial variance in ADQ (R² = 0.74), independence (R² = 0.36), cognition (R² = 0.15), and socialization (R² = 0.51) (all p < 0.001). ROC analysis showed excellent discrimination for low adaptive functioning (AUC = 0.947); the optimal cut-off was 34.5 (sensitivity 93.1%, specificity 87.9%). Conclusion Motor competence is strongly associated with adaptive functioning in institutionalized children with severe ID. TGMD-2 total score demonstrates excellent discriminative performance for identifying low adaptive functioning, supporting its potential utility as a pragmatic screening indicator in resource-limited residential settings; external validation and longitudinal studies are warranted.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by core symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. The associated impairments in executive functions significantly affect cognitive development and social adaptation in affected children. In recent years, moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) has emerged as a promising non-pharmacological and easily implementable intervention for improving executive functions in children with ADHD. This study systematically reviewed the effects of MVPA on executive functions in children with ADHD and the underlying neurobiological mechanisms. It examined both acute and long-term intervention dimensions, exploring the impacts of different types of exercise (aerobic, mixed, high-intensity interval training, etc.) on core subdomains of executive function—inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Long-term MVPA interventions demonstrate more stable and significant improvements, while the effects of acute interventions remain inconsistent due to individual differences and intervention heterogeneity. Regarding neurobiological mechanisms, MVPA may function through the following pathways: (1) activating the PGC-1α/FNDC5/BDNF pathway and enhancing hippocampal synaptic plasticity; (2) upregulating dopamine and norepinephrine levels, thereby strengthening functional connectivity in the prefrontal-striatal circuit; (3) optimizing activity within the default mode network to improve attentional regulation. Integrating neurobiological insights with clinical evidence, this study proposes the following recommendations for acute MVPA interventions in children with ADHD: (1) single session of moderate-intensity aerobic or mixed exercise lasting ≥20 minutes, maintained at 50%-75% of maximum heart rate (HRmax); (2) single session of moderate-to-vigorous aerobic or mixed exercise lasting 5-25 minutes, maintained at 64%-95% of HR max; (3) suitable activities including rope skipping, cycling, treadmill running, swimming, and mixed exercises. For long-term regular MVPA interventions, two modes are recommended: (1) traditional moderate-to-vigorous aerobic exercise, with single session lasting 25-90 minutes, at a frequency of 1-3 times per week, over 3-14 weeks, including physical conditioning, skill-based ball games, and mixed exercises; (2) high-intensity interval training (HIIT), with single session lasting 10-16 minutes, at a frequency of 3 times per week, over 3-6 weeks, including activities such as 20-meter shuttle runs, rope skipping, stair climbing, and swimming. This study aims to provide a theoretical foundation and practical reference for developing precise and personalized exercise interventions for children with ADHD.

PURPOSE:This study aimed to systematically characterise the development trajectory of physical fitness in children (7-12 years) and adolescents (13-18 years) with severe intellectual disability living in orphanages, based on 12 repeated assessments over three years. METHODS:A total of 132 children and adolescents aged 7-18 years with severe intellectual disabilities from orphanages in four regions of China were selected. Longitudinal trends in fitness indicators were assessed using generalised estimating equations (GEE). RESULTS:At baseline, the cohort included 93 boys (70.5%) and 39 girls (29.5%), comprising 57 children aged 7-12 years (9.29 ± 1.81 years) and 75 adolescents aged 13-18 years (14.80 ± 1.65 years). Most participants were normal weight (81.8%), with 3.1% overweight/obese and 15.1% underweight/severely thin at baseline. Baseline analyses indicated sex differences in several strength-related indicators (P ≤ 0.008), whereas BMI did not differ by sex (P = 0.21). Longitudinal analyses showed that (1) The BMI of children and adolescents with severe intellectual disabilities is on the rise (P < 0.01); (2) gains in strength and balance were more pronounced and developmentally sensitive during childhood; (3) in adolescents, core strength and balance displayed an atypical pattern with a mid-period decline followed by gradual recovery, suggesting potential neuromuscular coordination challenges; (4) overall physical fitness improved over time in children and adolescents (7-18 years) (P < 0.001), but remained lower than typically developing reference levels, indicating an atypical developmental trajectory. CONCLUSION:Physical fitness development in children and adolescents with severe intellectual disability is age-specific. Strength and balance training should be prioritised in childhood, whereas weight monitoring and core stability interventions should be strengthened in adolescence. Orphanage-based programmes should integrate motor skill development with metabolic risk management to address the dual challenges of developmental delay and obesity.

Response inhibition is more sensitive to aging than other forms of inhibitory control. Mounting evidence suggests that moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) can promote response inhibition and age-related brain structure and function in the frontal cortex. Nevertheless, a limitation of existing work is that it primarily focuses on the direct influence of MVPA on response inhibition, without directly examining how MVPA affects the component task processes that are involved in response inhibition. ActiGraph GT3X+ accelerometers were employed to quantify MVPA and to categorize older adults aged 60-79 years old into a higher physical activity group (HG) and a lower physical activity group (LG). The participants in the two groups completed three novel versions of the stop-signal task (SST), and structural as well as resting-state functional magnetic resonance images were collected. First, the behavioural data showed that the participants in the HG exhibited superior performance in inhibitory and attentional control than those in the LG. Second, the voxel-based morphometry (VBM) analysis revealed that the grey matter volume (GMV) in the right inferior frontal gyrus (rIFG) and the left superior frontal gyrus (lSFG) differed between the two groups. Third, the resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) analysis with the rIFG, lSFG or right pre-supplementary motor area (rpre-SMA) as a seed region revealed that the participants in the HG had a greater functional connectivity (rsFC) than the LG. Finally, partial correlation analysis indicated that the GMV and the rsFC could jointly account for group differences in response inhibition and attentional control induced by MVPA. (1) MVPA is positively associated with response inhibition in older adults, and the positive relationship is associated with effective attentional resource allocation for faster attentional capture; and (2) distinct frontal subregions of the brain induced by MVPA participate in different cognitive processes involved in response inhibition; particularly, the benefit from rIFG enhancement may be realized through optimizing attentional capture.

Background As life expectancy rises, age-related decline in mobility and physical function poses challenges for older adults. While traditional exercise can help, limitations and injury risks persist. This study explores low-frequency vibration training as a potential alternative to improve walking ability and body composition in older adults. Methods A lottery was used to randomly assign 50 participants (mean age 80.08 years) to either a vibration group (n = 25, 10 males, 15 females) or a control group (n = 25, 11 males, 14 females). While the control group continued their regular daily schedule, the vibration group completed 8 weeks of low-frequency vibration training (frequency: 4–13 Hz; amplitude: two mm), three sessions per week, with each session lasting 20–30 minutes. The walk ability was assessed using the 30-second Chair Stand Test (30-s CST), Timed Up and Go (TUG), and six-meter (six m) walk speed, while body composition was measured via body mass index (BMI), body fat percentage, and waist circumference (WC), hip circumference (HC), and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). Results Low-frequency vibration training significantly increased walking speed in the six m walk speed (F(1,36) = 4.50, p = 0.04, ηp2 = 0.11) and TUG (z = − 2.72, p = 0.007), compared with the control group. Observed improvements on the 30-s CST were not statistically significant (F(1,36) = 0.05, p = 0.81, ηp2 = 0.002). In the WC, the effect of time (F(1,36) = 7.19, p = 0.01, ηp2 = 0.16) was significant. The main effect of the group for HC (F(1,36) = 0.06, p = 0.80, ηp2 = 0.002) and WHR (F(1,36) = 2.00, p = 0.16, ηp2 = 0.05) were not significant, but the interaction effects for HC (F(1,36) = 6.37, p = 0.01, ηp2 = 0.15) and WHR (F(1,36) = 9.08, p = 0.005, ηp2 = 0.20) were significant. However, the intervention showed no statistically significant effects on BMI and body fat percentage. Conclusion Low-frequency vibration training significantly enhanced walking speed and WHR in older adults. This low-intensity intervention is especially beneficial for those with exercise limitations or a high risk of injury. Although its effects on BMI and body fat percentage were limited, the study offers valuable insights for developing personalized vibration training programs.

Introduction Group sports activities have been demonstrated to have an impact on the physical activity and social interaction abilities of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Methods Thus, this work, taking different types of group sports as the primary variable, explored the impact of 12-week group sports activities on the physical activity and social interaction abilities of children with ASD. A quasi-experimental design was used to divide 21 children with ASD into Experimental group (N = 11) and Control group 1 (N = 10), while healthy children of the same age were selected as Control group 2 (N = 12). The experimental group performed group sports activities for 60 min/time, 4 times/week, for a total of 12 weeks, while the control group maintained the traditional sports activities of Peizhi School. Physical activity was monitored using a three-axis accelerometer (Model: ActiGraph GT3X+), and social interaction ability was measured using the playground observation of peer engagement (POPE) observation scale to evaluate the social interaction states of children in the experimental group after the physical activities. Results and discussion After the intervention, the sitting time of children in the experimental group was significantly reduced (t = -12.735, p < 0.001, Cohen d = 2.75), and the time of moderate and high-intensity physical activity was significantly increased (t = -8.79, p < 0.001, Cohen d = 1.82). In social interaction ability, the duration of loneliness was significantly reduced (t = -2.567, p < 0.017, Cohen d = 0.57), and the duration of joint participation (t = -3.009, p < 0.007, Cohen d = 0.02) and the regular game (t = -2.511, p < 0.026, Cohen d = 0.46) were significantly increased, respectively. 4 weeks after the intervention, the sedentary behavior and loneliness of the experimental group both continued to decrease. Group physical activities can improve the physical activity levels and social interaction skills of children with ASD and have a good effect on the maintenance.

The association between physical function and working memory in older adults is moderated by structural dimensions of physical function, but it is unclear which structural dimensions of physical function are associated with working memory in healthy older adults. The purpose of this study was to construct the structural dimensions of physical function and assess their associations with working memory in adults aged 60-74 years to provide potential targets for earlier identification and interventions of physical function and working memory decline in older adults. To this end, data from 664 to 589 eligible older adults were used for factor analysis and structural equation modeling, respectively. A constructed structural model of three factors of physical function had good reliability and validity. The structural dimensions of physical function in adults aged 60-74 years were mobility and dynamic balance, muscular strength and cardiorespiratory endurance. Physical function in older adults was closely associated with working memory, with mobility and dynamic balance-but not muscular strength and cardiorespiratory endurance- closely associated with working memory.

Objective and setting: Physical intervention program has been revealed to be efficatcious to assist the physical and mental rehabilitation of children (primary student) with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Therefore, this study aims to explore the effects of exercise intervention on the physical and mental rehabilitation of children with ASD, and provide a reference for expanding behavioral intervention methods for autism. Design: According to the physical and mental characteristics of children with ASD, a 16-week, three-stage rehabilitation program was designed and implemented. During the training period, measurement methods such as ActiGraph GT3X+, Health Related Physical Fitness (HRPF), Test of Gross Motor Development 3 (TGMD-3), and ABC Behavior Observation Scale were used to evaluate the effects of rehabilitation training at each stage. Results: After completing the targeted intervention, the physical acvtivity of the two children was significantly promoted at a healthy physical fitness level, including the decreased sedentary behavior (Mchange=290.07 d/min, 218.16 d/min), the increased low-intensity physical activity (Mchange=367.39 d/min, 158.19 d/min), the increased moderate/high-intensity physical activity (Mchange=135.05 d/min, 36.45 d/min), and the increased total physical activity (Mchange=502.44 d/min, 194.64 d/min). In terms of healthy physical fitness level, the body mass index (BMI) of the the children with ASD was decreased (Mchange=0.7, 4.92), together with the increased grip strength (Mchange=1.8, 4.2) and forward bending in the new sitting position (Mchange=4.3, 5.6). In terms of basic motor skills, the total score of the children with ASD was increased (Mchange=4, 10), especially the object control skill score (Mchange=4, 7). In terms of the physical behavior, the frequency and duration of stereotyped behaviors of the two children were decreased. In addition, the positive communication times of the two children were also increased (Mchange=14, 12). Conclusion: After the 16-week exercise intervention, the physical activity and healthy fitness levels of autistic children were significantly improved, especially in terms of sedentary behavior, low-intensity physical activity, body composition, muscle strength and flexibility, movement development level and object control skills. Furthermore, the behavior was improved to some extent, while the communication ability was also effectively promoted. In the following stage, it is suggested to further optimize the personalized exercise intervention program that adapts to the physical and mental characteristics of autistic children, and strengthen the organic interaction between schools and families, so as to ultimately improve the overall health of children.

In response to current research trends emphasizing training programs to develop daily living skills in autistic children, this study employs a meta-analysis to explore the impact of group-based organized physical activity (GBOPA) on the social abilities of autistic children from multiple perspectives and further investigates its dose‒response relationship to define the “optimal” dose. We searched the PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases to identify relevant studies and screen their references. The effect size was calculated via Hedges’ g, and three-level random effects models were constructed via the metafor package in R. Moderation and regression analyses were conducted to explore significant influencing factors. This study included 24 articles from ten countries and included 1,042 participants (aged 4.56–11.11 years). The meta-analysis results clearly show that GBOPA can significantly improve social abilities (g = 0.48, Q = 114.84), including social functioning (g = 0.50, Q = 62.97) and communication (g = 0.37, Q = 48.07), in autistic children. Moderation analysis indicated that different age groups and training frequencies significantly affected social ability (between-group difference: p < 0.05). Specifically, interventions for early childhood children (g = 0.65) and a frequency of five sessions per week (g = 0.69) significantly enhanced the training effects on social ability. The multivariate meta-regression analysis results suggest that the optimal intervention for improving social ability in autistic children consists of 40 training sessions, each lasting 50 min. GBOPA can improve the social abilities of autistic children, including social functioning and communication. On the basis of existing evidence, GBOPA should be prioritized for early childhood autistic children (5 sessions per week, 50 min per session), followed by a transition to a maintenance intervention strategy (1–2 sessions per week) after completing the 8-week foundational cycle (a total of 2,000 min of exercise).

Background:The acceptance and inclusion of children with disabilities, especially in inclusive physical education classes, is crucial for their social integration and psychological well-being. To examine the relationship between friendship quality, empathy and attitudes of children without disabilities toward their peers with disabilities in inclusive physical education classes. Methods:The Children's Attitudes Toward Integrated Physical Education-Revised, Friendship Quality Questionnaire, and The Chinese version of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index instruments were used to investigate the attitudes of children without disabilities toward the participation in physical education classes of their peers with disabilities, the quality of their friendships, and their ability to empathize, respectively. Descriptive statistics, Pearson's correlation analysis, linear regression, and mediation effects were used for data analysis. Results:Girls without disabilities showed more positive attitudes than boys without disabilities toward the inclusion in physical education classes of children with disabilities (total score t = -3.92, p < 0.001). Disability attitudes were significantly and positively correlated with friendship quality (r = 0.22, p < 0.001) and the ability to empathize (r = 0.16, p < 0.01). Empathy positively predicted disability attitudes (adjusted R 2 = 0.055, F = 13.555, p < 0.001), and friendship quality mediated the relationship. Conclusion:Friendship quality plays a key role in mediating the effect of empathy on attitudes of children without disabilities toward their peers with disabilities. Enhancing students' empathy indirectly improves their attitudes toward disabilities by strengthening friendships.

BACKGROUND:Exercise interventions are recognized as an established therapeutic approach for children with DCD. This review aims to quantify the effectiveness of exercise interventions and examine the influence of potential moderating factors on outcomes. METHODS:We systematically searched PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, the Cochrane Library, and EBSCO from inception to November 1, 2025. All studies were rigorously screened based on predefined eligibility criteria. Risk of bias was assessed using ROB 2 and ROBINS-I. Effect sizes were calculated as Hedges' g (g) and pooled under a random-effects model, and potential moderators were examined through subgroup and regression analyses. RESULTS:A total of 40 studies involving 1655 participants were included, of which 24 were eligible for meta-analysis. The meta-analysis showed that exercise interventions significantly enhanced motor coordination (g = 1.06, 95 % CI [0.57, 1.55], I² = 86.7 %), fine motor skills (g = 0.50, 95 % CI [0.24, 0.76], I² = 32.4 %), hand-eye coordination (g = 1.12, 95 % CI [0.70, 1.54], I² = 71.6 %), and balance (g = 0.54, 95 % CI [0.20, 0.88], I² = 77.3 %) in children with DCD. Subgroup analyses identified intervention setting, intervention approach, and study design as key moderating factors influencing the outcomes. Meta-regression analysis revealed a significant negative association between improvements in fine motor skills and both intervention duration (β = -0.0728, I² = 0 %) and the total number of sessions (β = -0.0129, I² = 0 %). CONCLUSION:This study confirms the efficacy of exercise interventions in enhancing motor coordination, fine motor skills, hand-eye coordination and balance in children with DCD. More rigorous experimental designs are needed to compare the effects of different intervention approaches and protocols, and to determine the optimal intervention dosage.

Background: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is an early childhood and lifelong neurodevelopmental disorder. Many studies have confirmed that motor skills and physical activity interventions can improve motor development in ASD individuals and ultimately improve their quality of life. However, systematic evidence is lacking on whether motor skills and physical activity interventions improve motor development among children with ASD. Methods: A systematic search of the CNKI, PsycINFO, PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases was conducted for publications through 30 July 2023. Citation tracking and reference tracking were also used, and this study followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) reporting guidelines. Results: Of 8908 studies initially retrieved, 57 met the selection criteria and were evaluated. The overall quality of the evidence, assessed using PEDro, was low. The evaluated studies included 1622 children with ASD, among which 517 were males, from level II to IV, and ranging in age from 3 to 17 years. Five types (physical activity interventions, motor skill interventions, hippotherapy, equine-assisted or simulated horse riding interventions, exergaming interventions, and physical education interventions) of motor development interventions were used, and 57 studies achieved some positive results for improvements in motor development among children with ASD. Furtherly, eight studies reported motor development acquisition, retention, or transfer. Children with ASD learn well from different types of instructors, including teachers, coaches, camp counselors, physical therapists, and peers. Conclusions: Motor skills and physical activity interventions improved motor development among children with ASD, the effect of which would continue until the end of the interventions.