Cascaded phase-change material (PCM) packed-bed thermal energy storage systems improve thermal performance by enhancing temperature matching between PCMs and heat transfer fluids. However, existing optimization strategies based on aggregated indicators cannot explicitly formulate the inherent charging-discharging trade-off. This study develops a multi-objective optimization formulation for charging-discharging trade-offs by incorporating transient thermocline evolution analysis using a dispersion–concentric (D-C) model, PCM configuration selection, and stage-wise filling-ratio optimization. Charging and discharging thermocline thicknesses are formulated as competing objectives to quantify the trade-off and identify balanced PCM configurations and filling-ratio distributions. A representative compromise solution is selected from the Pareto set using the entropy-weighted Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to an Ideal Solution (TOPSIS). The comparative optimization of eight configurations involving six candidate PCMs revealed that the optimal configuration consists of PCM-1a (35 wt% Li2CO3–65 wt% K2CO3), PCM-2c (55 wt% MgCl2–45 wt% NaCl), and PCM-3e (59.98 wt% MgCl2–20.42 wt% KCl–19.6 wt% NaCl), with volumetric filling ratios of 0.13, 0.38, and 0.49, respectively. Compared with the reference scheme, the optimized scheme reduces the charging thermocline thickness by 78.5% while increasing the discharging thermocline thickness by 0.07, thereby improving the capacity ratio and utilization rate by 10% and 17.6%, respectively. Correspondingly, the charging, overall energy, and exergy efficiencies are improved by 4.4%, 5.3%, and 3.3%, respectively. This optimized design achieves the highest system benchmarks: a capacity ratio of 0.8, a utilization rate of 0.66, and a total TES capacity of 157.8 MWh.

The development of large-scale proton exchange membrane water electrolyzer cell (PEMEC) models is pivotal for advancing the industrialization of green hydrogen production, addressing critical challenges in computational efficiency and operational fidelity during system upscaling. In this study, five progressively simplified PEMEC models are developed and evaluated to reconcile computational efficiency with predictive accuracy, focusing on their resolution of key physical fields: current density, temperature, pressure, and liquid saturation. The fully resolved Model 1 serves as the accuracy benchmark, while subsequent models omit geometric domains (e.g., cathode components, bipolar plate and catalyst layer). Results demonstrate a clear trade-off: excessive structural simplification accelerates computation but may amplify prediction errors, with Model 5 achieving the fastest runtime (1.1 h) at the cost of the highest deviation (3.06%). Model 4 emerges as the optimal compromise, reducing computational time by 56% versus Model 1 while maintaining minimal errors (1.02%) through targeted retention of electrochemical coupling. Crucially, bipolar plate geometry plays an important role in temperature distribution prediction, while electrochemical heterogeneity governs fluid-phase transport accuracy. Validation on a commercial-scale electrolyzer (400 cm2 active area) confirms the adaptability of the proposed model to complex flow field architectures, highlighting its utility for large-scale design optimization. This work delivers a practical modeling framework for industrial-scale PEMEC design, enabling fast and reliable virtual prototyping of large systems while preserving accuracy in multi-physics simulations.

The melting process of a phase change material (PCM) inside a capsule can be promising in the thermal management of spacecraft. Such spacecraft operate under various gravity conditions, but previous studies have mostly considered the influence of gravity conditions on the constrained melting process of a PCM and not on its unconstrained melting process. In this study, a numerical model was constructed to comprehensively analyze the constrained and unconstrained melting processes of a PCM inside a spherical capsule under low-gravity conditions. After validation, the model was then applied to investigating the effects of low-gravity conditions on the evolution of velocity, temperature, melt layer thickness, heat transfer, liquid fraction, and total melting time. For the unconstrained melting process, low-gravity conditions weaken buoyancy-driven natural convection and slow down the solid PCM downward trend, thereby limiting the melting rate. In addition, the melt layer thickness does not increase linearly with decreasing gravity. Specifically, the increase in melt layer thickness is smaller by about 1.06 mm when the gravity drops from 0.4g to 0.2g compared to when it drops from 0.2g to 0.1g. The local heat flux in the contact melting area gradually decreases with the reduction of gravity during the unconstrained melting process. During the constrained melting process, notable oscillations in the local heat flux were observed. Decreasing the gravity from g to 0g increased the total melting times of the constrained and unconstrained melting processes by 417

The diagnostic accuracy of in-situ tools is critical for PEM electrolyzer cell (PEMEC) performance and lifespan. Experimental measurements of current density via the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) method often show unexplained heterogeneous distributions. Whether these indirect measurements at the bipolar plate accurately reflect the true electrochemical activity at the catalyst layer, which is experimentally inaccessible, requires further indepth investigation. In this work, we employ an integrated computational approach combining finite element analysis (FEM) and three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to systematically investigate the complex relationships between assembly mechanics, interfacial contact, and current sensing accuracy in PEMEC. This allows for direct comparisons between simulated PCB readings to the true current density distribution at the ACL-PEM interface. The models reveal that bolt preload induces non-uniform contact pressures peaking at 3.02 MPa. This mechanical heterogeneity translates to contact resistance variations that fundamentally distort current pathways, increasing measurement error by up to 24.3 % under realistic assembly conditions. Comparative analysis demonstrates that localized high-resistance zones divert current while low-resistance regions artificially concentrate it, leading to a measured distribution that significantly misrepresents true catalyst utilization. This work clarifies a key source of measurement error and underscores the necessity of managing mechanical assembly to ensure diagnostic fidelity.

The low thermal conductivity of phase change materials (PCMs) is a bottleneck to the large-scale application of latent heat thermal energy storage (LHTES). The close-contact melting (CCM) mechanism can address this issue by maintaining a near-minimal thermal resistance path, thereby greatly increasing the charging rate of LHTES. However, the CCM phenomenon in partially filled horizontal cylinders under a constant heat flux boundary condition has not been comprehensively revealed. This study built a visual experimental setup and developed a validated 2D numerical model to investigate the melting evolution and shell thermal dynamics. The results show that the characteristic dimension of the CCM basal gap is in the sub-millimeter range (500–790 μm under the investigated conditions). The gap's Péclet number is on the order of unity, suggesting that longitudinal convection in the squeezed melt is comparable to transverse conduction. Besides, the cylindrical shell exhibits a pronounced thermal gradient exceeding 100 K, indicating that localized thermal stress should be considered a vital structural design constraint. It is also found that the effectiveness of increasing heat flux in reducing melting time tends to decrease. Due to conduction-dominated bottlenecks, the reduction in melting time falls from 26.1% to only 14.2%. Finally, we developed a generalized dimensionless correlation to predict melt fraction (MF = Fo∙Ste0.55∙Ra0.24). The findings of this study can help guide the design of LHTES systems with CCM-enabled horizontal cylinders.

Simulating large-scale proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer stacks poses significant computational challenges. In this study, a novel rapid simulation framework is proposed and validated on a 4-cell PEM electrolyzer stack with each cell having an active area of 25 cm2. The methodology innovatively integrates a flow resistance network model for resolving hydraulic distribution among parallel cells, with a domain-decomposed 3D+1D multi-physics model. This hybrid approach retains full 3D resolution for the complex anode gas-liquid flow while simplifying the membrane and cathode into 1D electrochemical-thermal elements, thereby drastically reducing mesh complexity. Validation against a full-scale 3D CFD benchmark demonstrated that the proposed model captures performance variations caused by flow maldistribution, maintaining prediction errors for pressure, temperature, and current density below 6.68%. Crucially, the method reduces computational time by over 80% compared to the full 3D model while preserving essential physical heterogeneities. Furthermore, the study elucidates the critical influence of manifold distribution on the stack’s internal multi-physics fields and polarization performance. Results reveal that hydraulic maldistribution directly dictates the spatial gradients of pressure and temperature, leading to significant voltage variations across the stack layers.

The methane chemical looping dry reforming cycle suffers from significant carbon deposition due to the mismatch between oxygen transfer and methane activation during the reaction process, severely compromising oxygen carrier reactivity and long-term cyclability. Departing from conventional carbon suppression strategies, this work innovatively proposes incorporating carbon deposition as a reactant into the cycle. Based on the titanium dioxide/titanium carbide oxygen carrier with superior performance, a "carbon deposition-utilizing" methane chemical looping reforming cycle system is constructed. Furthermore, thermodynamic analysis is conducted to evaluate the feasibility and potential of this new reaction system. Considering the advantages of isothermal solar redox cycles, the optimal isothermal operating conditions (Rre = 3, Rox = 4.5, and Tre = Tox= 1550 K) are determined based on the comprehensive analysis of the cycle reoxidation degree, carbon deposition, energy enhancement factor and solar-to-fuel efficiency. Under these conditions, the system achieves synergistic conversion of accumulated carbon into useful products while reaching a peak solar-to-fuel efficiency of 42 %. Integration of 80 % gas-phase sensible heat recovery further elevates efficiency to 53 %, rivaling state-of-the-art solar fuel technologies. The constructed titanium dioxide/titanium carbide isothermal methane chemical looping reforming system not only circumvents persistent carbon fouling challenges but also enables catalytic valorization of deposited carbon, establishing a dual-path strategy for sustainable solar fuel production with enhanced energy circularity.

This paper aims to reduce energy consumption in alkaline electrolytic cell systems by conducting a parametric optimization study on the regular protrusion structures on the cathode surface. The protrusion height, width, and spacing gradient were selected as key geometric variables. Numerical simulations were performed based on electrode kinetics and gas-liquid two-phase transport models. By combining central composite design with response surface methods, quantitative relationships were established between the average cathode current density and the overall cell overpotential on one hand, and the structural parameters on the other. The results indicate that the protrusion height has the most significant and negative correlation with both responses; the optimized protrusion structure reduces gas accumulation near the electrode and improves mass transfer conditions. Under conditions of a bump height of 1.3 mm, a width of 2.6 mm, and a spacing gradient of 1.28 mm, as well as for a set of configurations with intermediate parameters, the average local reaction current density at the interface was reduced by 6.33% and 5.28%, respectively, compared to the structure without bumps, while the overall overpotential was reduced by 0.553% and 0.470%, respectively. A comparison of the polarization curves further verified that the optimized configuration exhibits a lower cell voltage at the same current density.

The flow field, serving as the primary region for water and gas management, directly affects the multi-physics distributions and electrolysis efficiency of proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers. In this work, a nested convection-enhanced serpentine flow field (NCESFF) is proposed for large-scale PEM electrolyzers. A three-dimensional, two-phase, non-isothermal model is employed to simulate the flow characteristics, multi-physics distributions, and electrolysis performance under different flow field configurations, thereby providing a comprehensive evaluation of the performance improvements achieved by NCESFF. The results reveal that the nested architecture enables efficient water supply and rapid gas bubble removal across all regions, while the convection-enhanced serpentine structure induces in-plane forced convection to strengthen mass transport within the electrolyzers. Compared with conventional multi-serpentine flow field (MSFF) and multi-parallel flow field (MPFF), NCESFF effectively suppresses gas accumulation beneath the ribs, reduces in-plane temperature variations, and improves the uniformity of liquid saturation by 5.02% and 10.51%, as well as temperature distribution uniformity by 17.76% and 19.91%, respectively. Moreover, the evolution of current density in large-scale PEM electrolyzers is revealed, showing that at low voltages the current density distribution is mainly governed by the liquid saturation distribution, while at higher voltages it is progressively dominated by the temperature distribution. Across different voltages, NCESFF consistently demonstrates superior current density uniformity and enhanced electrolysis efficiency.

The isothermal thermochemical redox cycle shows promise for solar fuel production due to its benefits in reactor design and hat recovery. While previous studies have examined benchmark material CeO2 for isothermal water or carbon dioxide decomposition, its high reduction temperature and relatively low energy conversion efficiency have limited its practical applicability. This study conducts a thermodynamic analysis of FeAl2O4 in a solar thermochemical two-step cyclic CO2 splitting system. The Computational Phase Diagram (CALPHAD) thermodynamic calculation method is utilized to assess the cyclic CO yield of isothermal cycles. The findings suggest that optimizing the oxygen partial pressure during reduction significantly boosts CO yield, with yields of 445 mu mol/g, 827 mu mol/g, and 1083 mu mol/g observed at 10-4 bar, 10-5 bar, and 10-6 bar, respectively. Additionally, the study investigates the influence of heat recovery on solar-to-fuel conversion efficiency. Under isothermal cycle at 1350 degrees C, the system efficiency reached a peak of 6.12 % at 10- 5 bar. After adopting an 80 % heat recovery strategy, it increased to 9.19 %. Sensitivity analyses highlight the critical impact of parameters such as cycle temperature and the heat recovery coefficient on efficiency. This research provides valuable insights into the fuel yield and conversion efficiency in isothermal solar thermochemical cycles.

Integrating air separation units (ASUs) with a liquid air energy storage (LAES) system offers enhanced revenue potential for LAES and a reduced payback period through shared use of compression and cooling equipment. However, the existing proposed LAES-ASU systems either fail to meet the continuous production requirements of ASU or impose limitations on the storage capacity of LAES. Therefore, this study proposes a novel multi-generation LAES-ASU system, where the LAES and ASU are coupled efficiently through stream splitting in the compression train, process modification in the liquefaction section, and exhaust reuse in the expansion train. After developing the analysis model, a parametric analysis of the coupled system is conducted to identify optimal operating parameters. Additionally, comprehensive energy, exergy, and economic analyses are performed to evaluate system performance. The results indicate a round-trip efficiency of 57.09 % for the LAES subsystem and comprehensive electricity consumption for air separation products of 0.268 kWh/Nm3, representing a 51.25 % decrease compared to the current ASU. The payback period of the proposed system is as short as 3.9 years, and the levelized cost of electricity is as low as 0.070 $/kWh, due to the additional revenue stream from gas products. The main exergy destruction occurs in components such as distillation columns, cryogenic heat exchangers and air compressors. This study assesses the potential and feasibility of coupling liquid air energy storage with air separation and offers insights for future optimization, ultimately contributing to the commercialization and industrial-scale application of LAES.

Molten salts are promising phase change materials for high-temperature thermal energy storage. Mixing molten salts with nanoparticles is attracting much attention to enhance thermal performance. However, the solid-liquid phase transition mechanism of molten salt mixing with nanoparticles has not been revealed. Therefore, this study focuses on the non-isothermal crystallization behavior of solar salt (SS) and two solar salt-based nanofluids (AgSS and SiO2-SS). Firstly, SS, Ag-SS and SiO2-SS samples were prepared and characterized. Secondly, based on the DSC test results, the kinetic characteristics of the samples under different cooling rates were analyzed by the Jeziorny-modified Avrami equation and the combined model of Avrami and Ozawa. Then, the activation energy was calculated, and the phase diagram analysis was introduced to analyze the crystallization process. Finally, the topological evolution of crystals obtained from the visual experiments was discussed. The results showed that the latent heat of solar salt slightly reduced when mixing with 0.5 wt% SiO2 nanoparticles but hardly changed with 0.5 wt% Ag nanoparticles. The crystallization of solar salt slowed down about 8 % after adding 0.5 wt% Ag nanoparticles but hardly changed with 0.5 wt% SiO2 nanoparticles. The Jeziorny-modified Avrami equation can describe the first crystallization stage of the samples, while it was not for the second stage due to the eutectic transition. Adding Ag and SiO2 nanoparticles would change the topological evolution of solid-liquid crystals. During the first crystallization phase, SS showed mainly epitaxial crystals with strong main stems, Ag-SS lots of acicular crystals, and SiO2-SS snowflake crystals with well-developed lateral branches.

Compressed air energy storage (CAES) technology plays a crucial role in mitigating the volatility and intermittency of wind and photovoltaic (PV) power generation, thereby enhancing energy efficiency and system stability. This study proposes a novel load-oriented hybrid system integrating wind, PV and CAES, while investigating its capacity optimization and scheduling strategies. A multi-objective optimization model is developed to balance power curtailment, load power deficiency, and system investment costs, ensuring economic efficiency and operational reliability. The model incorporates wind and PV generation variability, the charging and discharging characteristics, power constraints and storage capacity of the CAES system. The weight coefficients for power curtailment rates, load power deficiency rates, and system investment costs are set to 0.25, 0.40, and 0.35, respectively. Using seasonal data from a region in China, the optimization results show different capacity needs for each season. Analyze these seasonal capacities to support the final configuration plan. The installed wind power capacity in winter (1853 MW) slightly exceeds that in summer (1834 MW), while PV capacity in winter (761 MW) is significantly lower than in summer (933 MW). The CAES power capacity in winter (305 MW) exceeds that in summer (218 MW), while the storage duration is 2.4 h in winter and 2.6 h in summer. The optimized system effectively utilizes the complementary characteristics of wind and solar power generation, reducing power curtailment and shortages, and lowering investment costs. This study provides an effective solution for integrating high wind and PV power shares into the grid.

Compared with powdery CaCO3 materials, milli-sized CaCO3 pellets offer remarkable advantages in large-scale thermochemical energy storage (TCES) applications. However, there is a lack of a dual-scale packed-bed reactor model that couples the pellet scale and the reactor scale for CaCO3 pellets TCES. Based on model validation by comparing it with existing experimental data, this study develops a dual-scale packed-bed reactor model for the CaCO3 pellets TCES reaction. Firstly, the impact of pellet structural parameters and operating conditions on the heat transfer behavior of reaction pellets is evaluated. Then, a sensitivity multivariate analysis reveals the interplay between these key design parameters. The results show that the heating temperature is the most critical factor affecting the TCES performance of CaCO3 pellets. When the heating temperature is raised from 1073 K to 1223 K, the overall conversion of pellets increases from 39.15% to 85.50% after 12 h. The size of the pellets significantly affects the heat transfer between the heating fluid and the pellets, as well as within the pellets. As the pellet radius increases from 0.25 mm to 5 mm, the maximum radial average temperature difference between the pellets and the heating fluid (HTF) increases from about 0.23 K to 19.03 K. Increasing the porosity of the pellets and accelerating the inlet velocity of the HTF both enhance the surface heat transfer between the HTF and the pellets. These results contribute to predicting the conversion behavior and the coupled multi-physics transport processes of CaCO3 pellets in packed-bed reactors.

Non-uniform fluid distribution significantly limits the performance and lifetime of large proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers, as conventional flow field designs struggle to balance the competing requirements of high uniformity and low pressure drop. This study proposes a multi-stage, multi-objective topology optimization approach, using flow uniformity and pressure drop as co-optimization objectives, to design a novel, high-efficiency flow distribution zone structure for PEM electrolyzers. A full-scale, three-dimensional, two-phase, non-isothermal numerical model was developed to quantitatively evaluate the overall performance of the new distribution zone structure in terms of fluid distribution, multi-physics field uniformity, and electrolysis efficiency. Results show that the topology-optimized distribution zone flow field (TDZFF) effectively balances longitudinal and transverse flows, mitigating the non-uniform flow phenomena caused by preferential flow effects. Compared with the conventional manifold-type distribution zone flow field (MDZFF) and the dot-arraytype distribution zone flow field (DDZFF), TDZFF improves flow uniformity by 89.80 % and 46.18 %, respectively, while reducing the pressure drop by 43.73 % and 32.86 %. The enhancement in flow uniformity further improves the uniformity of liquid saturation, current density, and temperature distributions. Moreover, TDZFF establishes pressure differentials between adjacent channels to induce in-plane flow, thereby enhancing underrib mass transport. Owing to the synergistic improvements in multi-physics uniformity and mass transfer, TDZFF achieves electrolysis efficiency gains of 9.37 % and 5.11 % over MDZFF and DDZFF, respectively, at an operating voltage of 2.1 V.

Hydrogen production via proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer cells can efficiently convert renewable power through water splitting. In this study, a comprehensive three-dimensional, two-phase model of PEM electrolyzer cell (PEMEC) is developed, coupling electrochemical, mass and heat transfer. By this model, the influence of competition for mass transfer and electron conduction on the current density distribution is demonstrated. Methods to improve current density uniformity and electrolyzer performance are proposed. The results show that at low anode gas diffusion layer (AGDL) conductivities, the influence of electron transport on the local current density distribution is dominant. In contrast, at high AGDL electrical conductivities, current density distribution is primarily influenced by mass transfer. Higher AGDL conductivity can improve current density uniformity by homogenizing the current distribution, which supports the long-term operation of PEMEC. Besides, flow fields with strong under-rib mass transfer capability can also improve the performance and uniformity of PEMEC. Convection-enhanced-serpentine flow field (CESFF) demonstrates a maximum pressure difference of 15.3 kPa and an average of 4.16 kPa, showing the best polarization performance among the three investigated flow fields owing to its strong under-rib mass transfer capability, achieving a current density of 1.72 A/cm2 at a working voltage of 2 V.

Molten salt is a widely used material for high-temperature latent heat thermal energy storage, which requires a thorough understanding of heat transfer, fluid dynamics, solid-liquid interface migration and phase change during heat storage. In this study, a visual experimental platform was developed to investigate the melting process of solar salt under varying aspect ratios and wall temperatures. Key factors such as liquid fraction, temperature distribution, heat transfer dimensionless parameters and stored energy were analyzed. The results revealed that natural convection led to nonlinear migration of the phase interface and stratification in the liquid-phase temperature. Higher heating temperatures and larger aspect ratios enhanced the melting process, increasing both the energy stored and the instantaneous heat storage power. Additionally, cavities formed in the solid salt due to shrinkage during solidification, leading to irregular temperature and liquid level fluctuations during melting. Finally, a dimensionless formulation was proposed to predict changes in the liquid fraction throughout the melting process.

The CaCO3/CaO materials are promising materials for thermochemical energy storage. However, they suffer from rapidly decreasing energy storage density over multiple calcination/carbonation cycles. This paper aims to select suitable inert supports with cyclic stability enhancement for the calcium looping (CaL) process at high carbonation reaction temperatures (> 800 degrees C). Firstly, four metallic elements (Zr, Mn, Y and Ce) were selected, and a single-doping strategy was used to screen out single-doping inert supports. By comparison, the 20Ca-Zr had the best energy storage performance, with an energy storage density (E-g,E-N=30) of 1744.72 kJ/kg after 30 cycles. Subsequently, the co-doping method was applied to further screen out co-doped combinations with long-term cyclic stability potential. The Zr was co-doped with Mn, Y and Ce, respectively. Among them, the 20Ca-0.5Zr-0.5Y displayed the best cyclic stability with an average energy storage density (E-g,E-av) of 1950.69 kJ/kg in 30 cycles. Based on the chosen Zr-Y co-doped CaO-based composite, the doping concentration optimization and multiple cycles tests were carried out. The effective conversion (X-eff) of 10Ca-0.5Zr-0.5Y decreased by only 4.9 % after 60 cycles. Therefore, the Zr-Y co-doped CaO-based composite, possessing robust sintering resistance effects, is promising for long-term TCES technology.

In this study, a numerical investigation was conducted on the performance of a high temperature flat plate thermal energy storage with three phase change materials (PCMs). Based on a one-dimensional model, both the thermal conduction and phase change within the PCMs plate in the direction normal to the flow direction of heat transfer fluid (HTF) are taken into consideration in this study. The model was utilized to examine the influence of the cut-off values, mass flow rate of the HTF, and the flat plate thickness on the thermal storage efficiency and the melting process of the PCMs. The results indicated that both the thermal storage efficiency and the charging time increased with an increase in the cut-off values. Enhancing the mass flow rate of the HTF or reducing the thickness of the plate was found to be beneficial in improving the charging speed of the PCMs. Furthermore, at a cut-off value of 0.5, reducing the mass flow rate of the HTF or the flat plate thickness could improve the thermal storage efficiency, although the impact was not significant.

Solar thermochemical fuel conversion technology offers a significant potential to mitigate the challenges of intermittency and variability inherent in solar energy utilization. Traditional two-step methane chemical looping processes for fuel production are often hampered by complex apparatus requirements, operational intermittency, and persistent temperature variations, contributing to energy loss. In contrast, the chemical looping dry reforming of methane (CL-DRM) membrane reactor technology, as developed in this study, facilitates continuous fuel synthesis under isothermal conditions. Through the construction and analysis of a one-dimensional + onedimensional model for a single channel of this innovative reactor, the impact of structural and operational parameters on the reactor performance is elucidated. This model enables a swift prediction of the membrane reactor's operational efficacy. The results indicate that the reactor sustains a high energy conversion efficiency across a broad temperature spectrum, thereby enhancing its adaptability to the dynamic conditions of solar energy input. Notably, temperature and feed ratio (RCH4/CO2) are pivotal determinants of the conversion rate and the concentration of products. At a temperature of 1000 degrees C, with an optimal RCH4/CO2 ratio of 1, the efficiency is projected to attain 78 %, considering heat dissipation and thermal recovery mechanisms. These results underscore the promise of the solar-driven CL-DRM membrane reactor as a viable and efficient method for solar fuel production. This study provides a new perspective on the design of continuous solar fuel conversion reactors.