Cerebral Arteriovenous Shunting: Direct Carotid-Cavernous Fistulas

Extrapial, carotid-cavernous, direct arteriovenous shunts or direct carotid-cavernous fistulas, as they are commonly referred to, are usually due to head trauma. Patients usually present with ophthalmologic symptoms but can suffer a host of neuroradiological problems. Modern minimally invasive techniques have been developed for the successul treatment of most of these patients.