Identification of nonliteral language in social media: A case study on sarcasm

With the rapid development of social media, spontaneously user-generated content such as tweets and forum posts have become important materials for tracking people's opinions and sentiments online. A major hurdle for current state-of-the-art automatic methods for sentiment analysis is the fact that human communication often involves the use of sarcasm or irony, where the author means the opposite of what she/he says. Sarcasm transforms the polarity of an apparently positive or negative utterance into its opposite. Lack of naturally occurring utterances labeled for sarcasm is one of the key problems for the development of machine-learning methods for sarcasm detection. We report on a method for constructing a corpus of sarcastic Twitter messages in which determination of the sarcasm of each message has been made by its author. We use this reliable corpus to compare sarcastic utterances in Twitter to utterances that express positive or negative attitudes without sarcasm. We investigate the impact of lexical and pragmatic factors on machine-learning effectiveness for identifying sarcastic utterances and we compare the performance of machine-learning techniques and human judges on this task.