Patterns of regulatory divergence and gene expression in hybrids are associated with molecular evolution in species undergoing gene flow

The extent to which hybridization disrupts a gene’s pattern of expression likely governs its propensity for introgression, while its extent of molecular divergence can itself underlie such disruption. Together, these phenomena shape the landscape of sequence and transcriptional divergence across the genome as species diverge. To understand this process, we examine gene expression inheritance, regulatory and molecular divergences in the reproductive transcriptomes of species linked by gene flow. The fruit flies Anastrepha fraterculus and A. obliqua show evidence of gene flow despite clear evolutionary divergence and incomplete reproductive isolation. We find that their transcriptional patterns are a mosaic between those typically observed within and between allopatric species. Genes showing transgressive expression in hybrids or cis -regulatory divergence between species are associated with greater molecular divergence. This may reflect pleiotropic constraints that make them more resistant to gene flow or they may be more likely to experience divergent selection. However, while these highly divergent genes are likely to be important contributors to species differences, they are relatively rare. Instead, most differentially regulated genes, including those linked to reproduction, show high degrees of dominance in hybrids and trans -regulated divergence between species, suggesting widespread genetic compatibility that allowed for the identified introgression. These findings provide insights into how postzygotic isolating mechanisms might evolve in the presence of gene flow: regions showing cis -regulatory divergence or transgressive expression contribute to reproductive isolation, while regions with dominant expression and trans -regulatory divergence act as a buffer of hybrid breakdown, facilitating introgression, and leading to a genomic mosaic of expression and sequence divergence. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.