Module-Based Active Equalization for Battery Packs: A Two-Layer Model Predictive Control Strategy

High-performance and safe operation of a serially connected lithium-ion battery pack in the electric vehicle necessitates effective cell equalization to maintain the state-of-charge of each cell at the same level. In this work, an improved module-based cell-to-pack-to-cell (CPC) equalization system is developed, where the module-level (ML)/cell-to-module-to-cell (CMC) equalizers are utilized for e...