Monte Carlo-based data generation for efficient deep learning reconstruction of macroscopic diffuse optical tomography and topography applications

Significance: Deep learning (DL) models are being increasingly developed to map sensor data to the image domain directly. However, DL methodologies are data-driven and require large and diverse data sets to provide robust and accurate image formation performances. For research modalities such as 2D/3D diffuse optical imaging, the lack of large publicly available data sets and the wide variety of instrumentation designs, data types, and applications leads to unique challenges in obtaining well-controlled data sets for training and validation. Meanwhile, great efforts over the last four decades have focused on developing accurate and computationally efficient light propagation models that are flexible enough to simulate a wide variety of experimental conditions. Aim: Recent developments in Monte Carlo (MC)-based modeling offer the unique advantage of simulating accurately light propagation spatially, temporally, and over an extensive range of optical parameters, including minimally to highly scattering tissue within a computationally efficient platform. Herein, we demonstrate how such MC platforms, namely "Monte Carlo eXtreme" and "Mesh-based Monte Carlo," can be leveraged to generate large and representative data sets for training the DL model efficiently. Approach: We propose data generator pipeline strategies using these platforms and demonstrate their potential in fluorescence optical topography, fluorescence optical tomography, and singlepixel diffuse optical tomography. These applications represent a large variety in instrumentation design, sample properties, and contrast function. Results: DL models trained using the MC-based in silico datasets, validated further with experimental data not used during training, show accurate and promising results. Conclusion: Overall, these MC-based data generation pipelines are expected to support the development of DL models for rapid, robust, and user-friendly image formation in a wide variety of applications. (C) The Authors.