Indoor light-harvesting dye-sensitized solar cells surpassing 30% efficiency without co-sensitizers

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) have proven to be one of the best photovoltaic approaches for harnessing indoor/artificial light. Herein, we report two new molecularly engineered, cost-effective, metal-free, carbazole-based D-pi-A sensitizers (YK 8 and YK 9) by judiciously varying their pi-spacers, which are suitable for indoor photovoltaic applications. Using YK 8, we achieved an efficiency of 28.7% under standard 1000 lux Osram 14 W T2 cool day light fluorescent tube illumination with a power output of 68.88 mu W cm(-2) and 30.24% with a power output of 108.85 mu W cm(-2) under a higher illumination intensity of 1500 lux without co-sensitizers using iodide/triiodide electrolyte. With a small footprint/active area of 1.24 cm(2), we could power a temperature sensor completely autonomously at a low light intensity of 500 lux, displaying the potential of these indoor photovoltaic devices to serve as energy sources for low-power sensors and actuators on the Internet of Things (IoT) network, reducing the dependence on batteries and leading to a smaller carbon footprint. The role of the pi-spacer and its influence on recombination and device performance were explored via extensive interfacial studies.