A Comparative Techno-Economic and Lifecycle Analysis of Biomass-Derived Anode Materials for Lithium- and Sodium-Ion Batteries

The transition towards renewable energy and electric transportation depends on the development of efficient energy storage technologies. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have gained increasing popularity despite rising prices and uncertainty around sourcing the component materials. This has recently prompted the development of alternative alkali batteries, such as sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). However, despite academic efforts focused on optimizing technical performance, few have studied the underlying economic and environmental impacts of alkali batteries. Therefore, this research examines the techno-economic and environmental performance of SIBs, using a "cradle-to-gate" life cycle assessment of cell manufacturing, comparing sodium-ion half cells (coin cells) with their lithium counterparts. An optimal charge capacity of 312.4 mAh g(-1) for sodium-ion half-cells has been achieved using glucose-derived hard-carbons, a 45% charge capacity increase compared to lithium. Sodium half-cells are shown to be 18% cheaper compared to lithium. From the life cycle analysis, it is found that sodium-ion half-cells show the lowest environmental footprint across all impact categories compared to lithium. It can be concluded that sodium is a credible alternative to LIBs with a preference for SIBs when environmental factors are jointly considered with techno-economics.