Low Hatching Success in the Critically Endangered Kākāpō (strigops Habroptilus) is Driven by Early Embryo Mortality Not Infertility

In many endangered species, reproductive failure is a major barrier to recovery. The critically endangered kakapo Strigops habroptilus exemplifies this challenge: 61% of their eggs fail to hatch, and of these 73% show no sign of development. Undeveloped eggs have previously been attributed to male infertility, but recent studies of non-threatened bird species suggest fertilisation failure is rare in the wild. The underlying causes of fertilisation failure and embryo death differ, so distinguishing between them is essential for effective conservation management. Here we show that the majority (72%, n = 124) of undeveloped kakapo eggs are fertilised, and combine this with conservation programme data on natural copulations, artificial inseminations, and paternity of developed eggs, to generate the most precise estimate to date of fertility in a wild population. We also demonstrate, for the first time in a wild bird, that artificial insemination results in greater numbers of sperm reaching the egg.