Revealing excited states of rotational Bose-Einstein condensates

Rotational Bose-Einstein condensates can exhibit quantized vortices as to-pological excitations. In this study, the ground and excited states of the rotational Bose-Einstein condensates are systematically studied by calculating the stationary points of the Gross-Pitaevskii energy functional. Various excited states and their connections at different rotational frequencies are revealed in solution landscapes constructed with the constrained high -in-dex saddle dynamics method. Four excitation mechanisms are identified: vortex addition, rearrangement, merging, and splitting. We demonstrate changes in the ground state with increasing rotational frequencies and deci-pher the evolution of the stability of ground states.