Moisture ingress in commercial steel drums: Water content determination, diffusion modelling and predicted permeation rates

Commercial steel drums underpin the global economy, playing a pivotal role in the storage and transportation of critical materials. Transported and stored materials, such as food, chemical and nuclear waste, can be sensitive to ambient conditions, particularly moisture that can enhance negative effects such as corrosion and material degradation. Although international standards and regulations are in place for the qualification of steel drums, there are no current testing requirements, established limits or boundaries for the permeation of moisture into the drums during transportation or storage. This work aims to provide insights into the moisture ingress over time into properly sealed steel drums and provides estimated moisture ingress rates over time through extrapolation. Water vapour transmission rate (WVTR) measurements through the gasket material at 10-40 degrees C were 0.11-2.1 g/m(2)/day resulting in a permeation activation energy of 30.2 kJ/mol. Water sorption measurements and Karl Fischer titration (KFT) on ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) gasket material revealed a decrease in equilibrium moisture saturation with increasing temperature. KFT measurements also revealed the presence of moisture within the adhesive and drum wall after exposure to ambient conditions. KFT and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) show that moisture will desorb from the EPDM and drum wall after exposure to desiccating conditions, although a minimal amount of moisture will remain present. When sealed to the manufacturer's recommendations, the steel drums are effective in minimizing moisture ingress. In sealed empty drums, moisture ingress rates for 19-L drums were 0.4-1.5 mg/day at 25 degrees C 15% relative humidity (RH) and increased to 7.1-8.8 mg/day at 40 degrees C 90% RH, and moisture ingress rates for 210-L drums were 2.5 and 3.5 mg/day at field deployment conditions of 15.5 degrees C 51.5% RH and 23 degrees C 40% RH, respectively.