Diversity, evolution and life strategies of CbK-like phages.

Caulobacter phage CbK has been extensively studied as a model system in virology and bacteriology. Lysogeny-related genes have been found in each CbK-like isolate, suggesting a life strategy of both lytic and lysogenic cycles. However, whether CbK-related phages can enter lysogeny is still undetermined. This study identified new CbK-like sequences and expanded the collection of CbK-related phages. A common ancestry with a temperate lifestyle was predicted for the group, however, which subsequently evolved into two clades of different genome sizes and host associations. Through the examination of phage recombinase genes, alignment of attachment sites on the phage and bacterial genomes (attP-attB pairing), and the experimental validation, different lifestyles were found among the different members. A majority of clade II members retain a lysogenic lifestyle, whereas all clade I members have evolved into an obligate lytic lifestyle via a loss of the gene encoding Cre-like recombinase and the coupled attP fragment. We postulated that the loss of lysogeny may be a by-product of the increase in phage genome size, and vice versa. Clade I is likely to overcome the costs through maintaining more auxiliary metabolic genes (AMGs), particularly for those involved in protein metabolism, to strengthen host takeover and further benefit virion production.