Optimizing Mo-C coordination for enhanced low-temperature water-gas shift activity over α-MoC1-x catalysts: An experimental and theoretical study

•A method to control the surface Mo:C ratio by carbonization flow is discovered for the first time.•The relationship between the surface Mo:C ratio and the reactivity is established.•The low temperature water gas shift reaction activity depends on the electron transfer capability of the surface.•The catalysts with low Mo:C ratio improve catalyst stability.