Assessment and characterization of particulate matter during the winter season in the urban environment of Lahore, Pakistan

Particulate matter (PM) plays an important role in the earth's atmosphere; however, it is poorly understood, particularly in urban areas. The present study focuses on the characterization of PM (i.e., PM10 > PM2.5 > PM1) in Lahore (Pakistan) during the winter months of the 2018-2019 period. The PM mass concentrations were found to be several times higher than the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended level, which indicates that the air quality in Lahore city is alarming and requires immediate attention. The highest PM concentrations were found in December, followed by January and February. Moreover, the proton-induced X-ray emission (PIXE) analysis revealed the presence of the 15 elements, with Al being the most abundant element. The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis revealed the presence of various organic compounds with functional groups, such as alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, and carboxylic acids, as well as unsaturated and saturated carbon bonds. Pollution control and management strategies, like tree planting and green belts, are in high demand, coupled with the replacement of high-energy-consuming industries with clean and renewable energy sources to reduce emissions.