A conceptual framework for understanding ecosystem trade-offs and synergies, in communal rangeland systems

•A novel framework maps ecosystem trade-offs in communal rangelands to relevant stakeholders in South Africa.•It bundles these trade-offs into three broad categories: Environment, Community-Environment and Community.•The framework enables a systematic approach to identifying potential trade-offs within these categories.•The framework has potential for application more broadly in communal rangelands.