Baiting in conservation and pest management: A systematic review of its global applications in a changing world

Baiting is a powerful tool used to manipulate wildlife populations and induce ecosystem change. It involves delivering a substance to target individuals by deploying baits that they then consume. To identify patterns in bait applications and highlight opportunities for its improvement, we conducted a worldwide systematic review. Baiting occurred across 28 countries, but 60 % of all bait applications occurred in Australia or New Zealand. Baiting reports accelerated considerably in the early 2000's, driven by the use of sodium monofluoroacetate, which accounted for 42 % of all substances delivered in baits. For 89 % of bait applications their purpose was lethal control. Over 71 species were targeted in bait applications, including 62 mammals, eight birds and one reptile. Geographically, omnivores were the most widely baited guild, with carnivores being heavily targeted in Australia. Sixty-three percent of bait applications used simple designs that are known to frequently mis-represent the magnitude and direction of population impacts. The replication of impact and control sites was often very low. The distribution of baits occurred over areas as small as 100 m2 and as large as 4000 km2. Despite its overwhelming use for lethal control, baiting is not inherently detrimental to target individuals, and is also used to achieve therapeutic benefits. Baiting is an important tool that can be used to manipulate wildlife populations and induce ecosystem change; this power brings forth a responsibility to continually optimise its use and ensure its application is targeted. We highlight opportunities where the application of baiting may be expanded, and studies improved.