The role of ecosystem services in the doughnut economy - The example of whale ecosystem services in Disko Bay, Greenland

The doughnut economy framework has been increasingly advocated by academics, governance institutions and policy-makers as a tool for delivering economies that provide a social foundation for all people, are safe and socially just, and respect planetary boundaries. Thus far, the role of ecosystem services (ES) in contributing to the doughnut economy's ambitions has been underexplored. This is surprising considering the wealth of ES literature addressing the theoretical components of 'a good life' and relationships between social-ecological systems (SES), resource use and human well-being. Two contributions to the literature are made by this study: (1) a generalised model is outlined linking natural capital to ES to the ecological ceilings and human needs of the doughnut economy's framework, and (2) an illustrative case study of whale ES in Disko Bay, Greenland is provided to demonstrate linkages between ES and the doughnut economy's framework. The findings are based on 19 interviews with representative stakeholders in August 2019 and observational data gathered by the researchers. Although the case study is a simplification of the complexity of SES, it nevertheless reveals several of the key contributions made by whale ES to a mixed economy, especially reduced pressures on the ecological ceilings linked to biodiversity loss and climate change, and a positive contribution to the human needs of food, health, income and work, and social equity. The case study stimulates a discussion that reflects on the limited recognition of the role of cultural ES in the doughnut economy's conceptualisation, evidence of social-ecological tradeoffs and complexities. These include some increased pressures caused by whale ES on ecological ceilings and tensions between the human needs, and multi-level governance challenges in operationalising the doughnut economy.