Taphonomic approaches to distinguish chewing damage from knapping marks in Palaeolithic faunal assemblages

The imprint of human actions on mammal remains from archaeological sites is often fragmented and attenuated due to post-mortem processes, which add to the challenge of distinguishing human from natural modifications in faunal assemblages. Identifying minimally-worked bone tools poses a particular challenge when they are mixed with bones that have been modified by other agents. Bones, antlers and teeth used as hammers or pressureflakers in flint-knapping can be particularly difficult to identify because knapping damage resembles carnivore chewing marks. This paper presents a methodological approach to establish diagnostic criteria for identifying whether bones from archaeological sites were modified by chewing or knapping, using observations at macroscopic and microscopic levels. We applied these criteria to case studies from the Upper Palaeolithic (Magdalenian) site of Gough's Cave (UK). Analysis of Magdalenian stone tools shows that blades were detached with a soft hammer, yet organic (soft) knapping tools appear to be scarce in Magdalenian contexts. We propose that the difficulty in identifying knapping damage on bones that have undergone only a short period of use, combined with the macroscopic similarity of these marks with natural modifications (e.g., carnivore chewing), are significant factors contributing to the rarity of minimally-modified knapping tools in archaeological contexts.