Internet-of-Things framework for scalable end-of-life condition monitoring in remanufacturing

The worldwide generation of waste electrical and electronic equipment is continuously growing, with electric vehicle batteries reaching their end-of-life having become a key concern for both the environment and human health in recent years. In this context, the proliferation of Internet of Things standards and data ecosystems is advancing the feasibility of data-driven condition monitoring and remanufacturing. This is particularly desirable for the end-of-life recovery of high-value equipment towards sustainable closed-loop production systems. Low-Power Wide-Area Networks, despite being relatively recent, are starting to be conceived as key-enabling technologies built upon the principles of long-range communication and negligible energy consumption. While LoRaWAN is considered the open standard with the highest level of acceptance from both industry and academia, it is its random access protocol (Aloha) that limits its capacity in large-scale deployments to some extent. Although time-slotted scheduling has proved to alleviate certain scalability limitations, the constrained nature of end nodes and their application-oriented requirements significantly increase the complexity of time-slotted network management tasks. To shed light on this matter, a multi-agent network management system for the on-demand allocation of resources in end-of-life monitoring applications for remanufacturing is introduced in this work. It leverages LoRa's spreading factor orthogonality and network-wide knowledge to increase the number of nodes served in time-slotted monitoring setups. The proposed system is validated and evaluated for end-of-life monitoring where two representative end-node distributions were emulated, with the achieved network capacity improvements ranging from 75.27% to 249.46% with respect to LoRaWAN's legacy operation. As a result, the suitability of different agent-based strategies has been evaluated and a number of lessons have been drawnaccording to different application and hardware constraints. While the presented findings can be used to further improve the explainability of the proposed models (in line with the concept of eXplainable AI), the overall framework represents a step forward in lightweight end-of-life condition monitoring for remanufacturing.