Modulation of Plant Photosynthetic Processes During Metal and Metalloid Stress, and Strategies for Manipulating Photosynthesis-Related Traits.

Metals constitute vital elements for plant metabolism and survival, acting as essential co-factors in cellular processes which are indispensable for plant growth and survival. Excess or deficient provision of metal/metalloids puts plant's life and survival at risk, thus considered a potent stress for plants. Chloroplasts as an organelle with a high metal demand form a pivotal site within the metal homeostasis network. Therefore, the metal-mediated electron transport chain (ETC) in chloroplasts is a primary target site of metal/metalloid-induced stresses. Both excess and deficient availability of metal/metalloids threatens plant's photosynthesis in several ways. Energy demands from the photosynthetic carbon reactions should be in balance with energy output of ETC. Malfunctioning of ETC components as a result of metal/metalloid stress initiates photoinhiition. A feedback inhibition from carbon fixation process also impedes the ETC. Metal stress impairs antioxidant enzyme activity, pigment biosynthesis, and stomatal function. However, genetic manipulations, nutrient management, keeping photostasis, and application of phytohormones are among strategies for coping with metal stress. Consequently, a comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms of metal/metalloid stress, as well as the exploration of potential strategies to mitigate its impact on plants are imperative. This review offers a mechanistic insight into the disruption of photosynthesis regulation by metal/metalloids and highlights adaptive approaches to ameliorate their effects on plants. Focus was made on photostasis, nutrient interactions, phytohormones, and genetic interventions for mitigating metal/metalloid stresses.