A review of non-invasive samples and tools in kala-azar diagnosis and test of cure

The recurrence of visceral leishmaniasis (VL), also called kala-azar (KA), in endemic regions of tropical countries like India, is primarily attributed to asymptomatic VL, post -kala azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) co -infection. To effectively manage VL cases and elimination targets, an early and rapid diagnosis as well as accurate field surveillance is highly essential. The traditional sampling methods like bone marrow (BM), spleen, and lymph node (LN) tissue aspirations are invasive, painful, tedious, and prone to nosocomial infections, require skilled persons and hospital facilities, and are not feasible in rural areas. Therefore, there is an urgent requirement for the adoption of a patient-friendly, non -invasive, non-hospitalized sampling procedure that ensures an effective VL diagnosis. This review aims to meticulously evaluate the most recent scientific research that focuses on the precision, feasibility, and applicability of non -invasive sampling (NIS) and techniques for the diagnosis and test of cure of VL, particularly in resource-limited settings. Apart from that, the non -invasive techniques (NIT) that have shown promising results while monitoring VL treatment response and relapse are also reviewed. The limitations associated with NIT and possible improvements in this regard are discussed as well to improve the diagnosis and management of VL.