A Conceptual Model for Evaluating the Stability of High-Altitude Ice-Rich Slopes Through Coupled Thermo-Hydro-mechanical Simulation

The collapse of glacial, permafrost, and ice-rich moraine slopes in high-altitude mountainous areas not only threatens downstream residents and infrastructure but also displaces ice mass to lower and warmer elevations, accelerating glacial ablation to some extent. Despite being considered rare, ice-rich slopes collapse more frequently than commonly thought due to climate change. For example, two adjacent mountain glaciers in the Aru Range of the Tibetan Plateau, characterized by large volumes (68 x 10 6 m 3 and 83 x 10 6 m 3 , respectively) and low surface slope angles (12.3 degrees and 12.9 degrees , respectively), collapsed surprisingly in 2016. While the mechanisms behind these collapses have garnered broad attention, the ability to quantitatively assess the instability of ice-rich slopes remains limited due to the complex interplay of multi-physical processes. Taking the Aru glacier collapses as reference cases, this paper presents a conceptual model, implemented through coupled thermohydro-mechanical simulation, to evaluate the stability of high-altitude ice-rich slopes due to climate change, rainfall and ice ablation. Results indicate that the methodology captures the effects of temperature change, rainfall and meltwater on the instability events well, demonstrating promising potential in evaluating potential collapse zones of ice-rich slopes similar to the Aru glaciers. Furthermore, the role of climate change in the wellknown Aru events is demonstrated using a state-of-the-art global climate reanalysis dataset. Findings reveal that the increase in liquid water infiltrating the Aru glaciers since 2010 was a critical factor leading to the instability events.